Overview of the Water, Energy, Food, Health, and Climate Nexus: A Perspective from Indonesia

Abstract  

Nowadays, challenges both nationally, regionally, and globally have developed rapidly. Issues are increasingly complex, not only related to traditional issues but also non-traditional issues. One of these important issues is sustainable development. Issues related to sustainable development require a holistic approach that takes into account the complex relationships between the various elements. This chapter comprehensively overviews baseline conditions across Indonesia’s, Malaysia’s, and Singapore’s water, energy, food, health, and climate. The significance of this research is critical to acknowledging the baseline and indicators, understanding these element’s linkage, and developing effective responses regarding the current challenges of sustainable development. Drawing on datasets from the World Bank Group reports, Government reports, UN reports, Media reports, and peer-reviewed literature, it establishes core indicators that underpin the Nexus Report’s subsequent risk analyses, scenario modeling, and policy recommendations. By harmonizing data within an open science framework, the chapter ensures transparent, reproducible, and policy-relevant insights to guide integrated risk management. 

Introduction  

Baselines are essential for global risk management as they provide a reference point for assessing changes and identifying vulnerabilities across critical systems such as water, energy, food, health, and climate. Establishing baselines allows policymakers, scientists, academia, and stakeholders to measure deviations from normal conditions, enabling early detection of emerging risks.  Baselines help track trends, assess policy effectiveness, and inform evidence-based decision-making in a rapidly changing world. Without them, risk assessments lack accuracy, making it difficult to design effective mitigation and adaptation strategies.  

Water, energy, food, health, and the environment are truly interconnected. As the basic needs for one of these elements increase, understanding the water, food, health, and climate change Nexus becomes increasingly important, as we cannot live without them. An imbalance in the water, food, health, and climate change Nexus will impact everyone. For example, the water supply we use every day is also needed to produce energy and food, support health, and preserve the environment. If one of these elements is disrupted, for example, the water element, then the others will also be affected. Unfortunately, the relationship between them is rarely discussed. This study will discuss the elements of water, food, health, and climate change in Indonesia. 

Accurate baselines are essential for understanding systemic vulnerabilities and developing effective resilience strategies in Indonesia. As a country highly exposed to climate change, natural disasters, and resource pressures, Indonesia must rely on precise baseline data to assess risks across water, energy, food, health, and climate systems. Without accurate baselines, it is difficult to support sustainable development. Reliable baseline data enables policymakers to identify trends, allocate resources effectively, and implement adaptive strategies to strengthen resilience. It also supports disaster preparedness by improving early warning systems and emergency response planning. By investing in accurate data collection and analysis, Indonesia can build a more sustainable and resilient future, ensuring long-term security and stability for its people. 

Transparent data sharing and collaborative review are crucial for maintaining consistency in decision-making across regions. With varying local capacities and data collection methods, inconsistencies can hinder effective policy implementation in the water, energy, food, health, and climate sectors. Open data platforms and inter-agency coordination ensure that accurate, up-to-date information is accessible for evidence-based decisions. Collaborative review processes help standardize methodologies, reduce discrepancies, and enhance trust among stakeholders. By fostering transparency and cooperation, Indonesia can strengthen national and regional resilience, improve disaster response, and drive sustainable development through well-informed and unified strategies. 

Scope and Key Indicators  

This research has a scope in Indonesia with the research limitation of observing general conditions based on data obtained during the period 2020-2025, looking at basic indicators including water, energy, food, health, and environment. 

Method 

This research was conducted using qualitative research methods. This method aims to improve the understanding of researchers and readers regarding phenomena, activities, and/or social processes. (Bakry, 2019). Data search was carried out by researchers by conducting literature studies and using triangulation techniques to search for data by comparing various data obtained from various documents, such as UN reports, government reports, e-books, journal articles, internet sites, and print and online media. Through this technique, it will ensure accuracy, reliability, and validity by cross-verifying information from various sources. Then, this study uses descriptive research analysis that explores a phenomenon by describing many variables related to the problem and unit being studied. It also aims to provide an overview of the object to be studied and report what happened (Mas’oed, 1990). This research will then be conducted using the water, food, health, and climate change Nexus analytical framework, which is a complex framework that considers the interactions between these sectors. The water, food, health, and climate change nexus considers how challenges in one sector can affect other sectors (Mutanga et. al, 2024). This research is used to develop policies and strategies to address challenges related to water, energy, food, health, and climate change. In addition, this research serves as an integrative approach to ensure that the water, energy, food, health, and environment sectors can be managed sustainably and support each other. This research will describe the basic conditions that will be observed in Indonesia related to water, food, energy, health, and climate systems in general. 

Main Findings: Baseline Indicators by Domain  

Water Sector Baselines  

According to a report from The Water-Energy-Food (WEF) Nexus Index, Indonesia has a score of 76 for the Water pillar (WEF Nexus Index, 2023). With details that the Water access index is 74.64 and the Water availability index is 77.44. The Indonesian government through the Initial Draft of the National Medium-Term Development Plan 2025 – 2029 said that it wants to achieve water self-sufficiency (Indonesian Government, 2025). 

The current water conditions in Indonesia are still unsatisfactory, with various issues such as pollution, water crisis, and unequal access to clean water. First, water pollution. Water in Indonesia is susceptible to pollution by industrial, domestic, and agricultural waste. This waste contains toxic chemicals that damage water quality. Second, water crisis. Several areas in Indonesia are at high risk of experiencing a water crisis. This is due to the high population burden and over-exploitation of water sources. Several springs on the island of Java have experienced a decrease in water discharge and have even dried up. Third, unequal access to clean water. There are still many people in Indonesia who do not have access to clean and proper water. The majority of people who do not have access to clean and proper water live in disadvantaged areas. Government statistics show that in 2023, access to clean drinking water in rural areas will only reach 84.93% while proper sanitation in rural areas will only reach 76.98%. 

According to the government report, the main challenge is that the need for water in Indonesia continues to increase and the quality and quantity of water sources are decreasing. Therefore, the government then set targets where 1) Per capita Water Storage Capacity of 65.65 m3/cap in 2025 and 70 m3/cap in 2029. 2) Increase in Piped Drinking Water Network by 28.2% in 2025 and 40.2% in 2029. 3) Increase in Households Served with Safe Drinking Water by 33% in 2025 and 42.56% in 2029. 4) Increase in Households Served with Safe Sanitation Access by 12.5% in 2025 and 30% in 2029. 5) Eradication of Open Defecation Behavior by 2.5% in 2025 and 0% in 2029. The Indonesian government in this report also said that Indonesia is one of the countries with the largest water resource potential in the world, it is therefore necessary to maintain and improve water conditions so that they can be managed well and sustainably for the good of society. 

Food Sector Baselines  

According to a report from The Water-Energy-Food (WEF) Nexus Index, Indonesia has a score of 57.7 for the Food pillar (WEF Nexus Index, 2023). With details the Food Access Index is 75.02 and the Food Availability Index is 40.43. The Indonesian government through the Initial Draft of the National Medium-Term Development Plan 2025 – 2029 said that it wants to achieve food self-sufficiency (Indonesian Government, 2025). 

The current food situation in Indonesia is still unstable and faces various issues such as climate change. Drought and flood disasters due to climate change have an impact on food production. 

According to the government report, there are various challenges including 1) an increase in population of 1.1% per year. 2) The stagnation of the main food production, namely rice, has decreased by 1.1% in 2019-2023. 3) high dependence on imports, namely rice of 3.1 million tons in 2023. 4) there are areas vulnerable to food around 16% of districts/cities. 5) There is a land conversion of around 800 thousand hectares in 2019-2024. 6) a decrease in land quality or degradation of 89.5 unsustainable land. Therefore, the government then set targets where 1) the food security index reaches 76.20% in 2025 and 80.72% in 2029. 2) Prevalence of Insufficient Food Consumption of 7.21% in 2025 and 4.41% in 2029. 3) Increasing food production, especially rice, by 34.9 million tons in 2025 and an additional 20 million tons in 2025-2029. The Indonesian government in this report also said that there is potential for food land in Indonesia, especially in areas outside Java, including Kalimantan, Nusa Tenggara, and Papua. 

Energy Sector Baselines  

According to a report from The Water-Energy-Food (WEF) Nexus Index, Indonesia has a score of 61.1 for the Energy pillar (WEF Nexus Index, 2023). With details that the Energy access index is 69.65 and the Energy availability index is 52.62. The Indonesian government through the Initial Draft of the National Medium-Term Development Plan 2025 – 2029 said that it wants to achieve energy self-sufficiency (Indonesian Government, 2025). 

The energy situation in Indonesia faces challenges, such as dependence on fossil fuels such as oil and coal and increasing energy consumption. In fact, Indonesia has quite large renewable energy potential such as solar energy, wind energy, water energy, biomass energy, and nuclear energy. In addition, there are challenges such as inequality in energy access, and lack of research and innovation. 

According to the government report, there are various challenges including 1) Dependence on fossil energy of 86%. 2) Fossil energy reserves continue to decline with details: oil 2.5 billion barrels and coal 31.7 thousand million tons. 3) Energy access is not evenly distributed where as many as 177 thousand households do not have access to electricity. The use of New and Renewable Energy is still relatively small at around 14%. Therefore, the government then set targets where 1) Energy security index of 6.77 in 2025 and 6.95 in 2029. 2) Primary Energy Supply of 280 MTOE in 2025 and 356 MTOE in 2029. 3) Portion of New and Renewable Energy in the Energy Mix of 20% in 2025 and 23% in 2029. The Indonesian government in this report also said that the potential for New and Renewable Energy is abundant at around 3,600 Giga Watts. 

In addition, according to the Report from the Indonesian Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources in 2021, it was stated that the enormous renewable energy potential in Indonesia has not been optimally utilized, except for hydropower which has produced 4.2 GW and geothermal 0.8 GW. The utilization of other energy sources such as solar, wind, micro-hydro, and others is hampered by high costs so that it cannot compete with the price of fossil fuels. For example, regarding bioenergy, the Indonesian Government through the National Energy General Plan (RUEN) has a target of utilizing bioenergy power plants per year and a target of 5.5 GW by 2025. However, it faces challenges including reliable infrastructure still lacking, unstable biomass prices, and supporting industries are not ready,  the hydrogen industry, methanol industry, catalyst industry, and IVO/ILO industry (Indonesian Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, 2021). Another example is, related to biogas, the Indonesian Government has an annual target for biogas utilization and a production target of 489.8 million m3 by 2025, but the cost of installing biogas is considered high, especially for rural communities. Initial funds to build biogas installations are not widely available. (Indonesian Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, 2021). 

Health Sector Baselines  

The current health conditions in Indonesia are faced with various problems, such as non-communicable diseases and stunting or chronic malnutrition conditions that cause growth disorders in children’s height. These various health problems in Indonesia are caused by several indications. First, the quality, equity, and affordability of health efforts are not optimal. Second, health management, information, and regulations are still not strong enough. Third, the equity and quality of human health resources do not fully support the implementation of health development. 

According to the Indonesian Government report (2025), the health sector faces various challenges, including 1) The maternal mortality rate is still high (189/100,000). 2) Stunting is still high at around 21.50%. 3) Around 43.78% of Community Health Centers do not have 9 types of health workers that meet standards. 4) Around 20.36% of Class C Regional General Hospitals do not have 7 basic and supporting specialist doctors. 5) Around 63.54 percent of fully accredited Primary Health Facilities are still not optimal. Therefore, the government then set a target where 1) Life Expectancy is 74.43 in 2025 and 75.4 in 2029. 2) Maternal Mortality Rate per 100,000 live births is 122 in 2025 and 85 in 2029. 3) Stunting Prevalence is 18.8 years in 2025 and 14.4 in 2029. 

Climate Baselines  

The current environmental and climate conditions in Indonesia are vulnerable to damage. Some of the environmental issues currently facing Indonesia include: First, environmental pollution. Air, water, and soil pollution are caused by motor vehicle exhaust fumes, industrial waste, and oil spills. Second, Deforestation. Illegal forest encroachment, land clearing, and forest fires threaten forest sustainability and biodiversity. The Indonesian government through the Initial Draft of the National Medium-Term Development Plan 2025 – 2029 stated that it wants to achieve Climate Resilient Development and Disaster Risk Management (Indonesian Government, 2025).  

According to the government report, there are various challenges including 1) Indonesia’s Disaster Risk Index is still high at 132.5. 2) The Regional Resilience Index is still low at 0.44. 3) Villages in disaster-prone areas are around 53,000 out of 81,616 villages. 4) The Community Preparedness Index is still low at 0.10. 5) The post-disaster recovery index is still low at 6.02. 6) Sea level rise continues to increase by 0.8 cm – 1.2 cm per year. 7) Coastal areas are vulnerable to climate change in as many as 313 out of 514 districts/cities. 8) Changes in rainfall have an impact on the water cycle and ecosystem (±2.5 mm/Day). 9) Extreme waves continue to increase (>1.5 M). Therefore, the government then set a target where the Disaster Risk Index Value Decrease is 1.2% in 2025-2029. 

Fig. Trend of disaster occurrence in Indonesia in the last 10 years 

Source: World Bank Report adapted from BNPB, 2021. 

The above data shows that Indonesia has been vulnerable to disasters for the past decade. According to the World Bank, Indonesia is one of the countries prone to natural disasters in the world. More than three-quarters of disasters in Indonesia are meteorological or hydrological, such as floods, landslides, droughts, extreme weather, tidal waves, and forest fires. (World Bank, 2021). 

Discussion Implications  

This discussion will look at water and health aspects by taking a case study of stunting in Indonesia. This case can be seen concerning SDG 6. Clean Water and Sanitation where it is stated that the goal is “By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations” and SDG 3. Good Health and Well-Being where it is stated that the goal is “By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births”. (UNDP, 2025).  

According to a World Bank report, the problem of severe stunting in children in Indonesia is partly related to water pollution and poor sanitation. The Indonesian Ministry of Health, as quoted by the Genbest article, stated that stunting caused by the lack of clean water and poor sanitation reached 60 percent, while that due to malnutrition was “only” 40 percent (Genbest, 2021). Why are clean water and sanitation essential for preventing stunting? Genbest said that the connection between consuming contaminated water and stunting is linked to the number of microorganisms found in unsanitary water that can disrupt bodily systems if ingested. Diseases commonly associated with contaminated water include diarrhea. Children who have difficulty accessing clean water, for example, may experience repeated episodes of diarrhea. When diarrhea occurs, many fluids and micronutrients (essential nutrients) are lost from the child’s body. Stunting itself is a condition of failure to thrive in children (body and brain growth) due to long-term malnutrition. This disorder is characterized by a child’s height that is stunted or much shorter than their peers. That is why preventing stunting is not only related to good nutritional intake but also ensuring adequate clean water needs. 

Fig. Stunting in Indonesia 

Source: Indonesian Government Report 2024 

The data above shows the stunting rate in Indonesia during the period 2019-2023. Where there is a positive trend of decreasing stunting rates. Currently, the figure has reached 21.50 and is expected to continue to decline along with the improvement of the health sector in Indonesia. 

Fig. Overview of water challenges across Indonesia 

Source: World Bank Report, 2021 

The above data shows that Indonesia is a vast archipelago consisting of five main islands, two large island groups, and 60 smaller island groups—each with its own water challenges. Water scarcity is only a challenge for Java, Bali East Nusa Tenggara (NTT), and Sulawesi. On the other hand, Papua, Kalimantan, and Sumatra have to struggle for access to Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services. Thus, action is needed—which varies across regions. 

Fig. Surface water pollution status across Indonesia  

Source: World Bank Report adopted from MoEF, 2021 

The data above shows the distribution of water pollution in Indonesia. Based on this, the island of Java appears to be quite vulnerable to water pollution. According to  the World Bank report, the majority of Indonesia’s population is exposed to water pollution. The World Bank added that around 70% of groundwater pollution in Indonesia comes from leaking toilet tanks and untreated domestic waste that is deliberately dumped into waterways (World Bank, 2021). 

Then, who is responsible for the Water sector in Indonesia? In Indonesia, the Water sector has received special attention with various central government ministries having an agenda for Water. The following is an organizational chart of water management in Indonesia. 

Fig. Organizational and institutional structure of Indonesia’s water sector 

Source: World Bank Report, 2021 

The data above shows that in Indonesia the management of the water sector is quite comprehensive from the central government level to the village government. Several ministries have responsibility for water as follows, 1) The Ministry of National Development Planning (BAPPENAS) is responsible for carrying out national development planning through the five-year plan (RPJMN) and in collaboration with line ministries. Bappenas is also responsible for ensuring integration between the RPJMN and other planning documents such as the Strategic Plan (RENSTRA) and the Regional Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMD) and for the implementation of the RPJMN. 2) The Ministry of PUPR is responsible for the management of water resources and river basins, the provision of clean water and sanitation, irrigation, and infrastructure financing. 3) The Ministry of Environment and Forestry (KLHK) is responsible for monitoring water quality and wastewater discharge, issuing permits, and enforcing discharge standards, as well as assessing the environmental impact of large projects. 4) The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (ESDM) is responsible for groundwater management and energy policies and programs. 5) Ministry of Home Affairs (Kemendagri), is responsible for the implementation of domestic governance, public order, and regional development at the provincial and district levels. The five ministries have roles and responsibilities for the Water sector in Indonesia, but in dealing with Water problems in Indonesia until now it has not been optimal, therefore further synergy is needed by involving community groups and carried out evenly. 

Recommendations Next Steps  

Water Pillar: In the short term, people need to be educated to protect water sources and use water wisely. In the long term, the government needs to improve water and sanitation infrastructure, especially in rural areas. 

Food Pillar: In the short term, the public needs to be educated to mitigate the possibility of climate change impacting the food sector. In the long term, the government needs to take action to create food barns. 

Energy Pillar: In the short term, the public needs to be educated to develop renewable energy. In the long term, the government needs to implement a strategy in switching to new and renewable energy (EBT), encourage investment in renewable energy generation, and issue regulations and schemes to support the energy transition in each region. 

Health Pillar: In the short term, the public needs to be educated to raise awareness of the stunting problem in Indonesia. In the long term, the government needs to implement impactful policy strategies to mitigate the stunting problem. 

Climate Pillar: In the short term, the public needs to be educated to raise awareness of environmental issues in Indonesia. In the long term, the government needs to adopt stricter environmental protection policies. 

References 

• Bakry, Umar Suryadi. 2019. Metode Penelitian Hubungan Internasional. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. 
• Genbest. 2021. “Pentingnya Air Bersih untuk Cegah Stunting”. https://genbest.id/articles/pentingnya-air-bersih-untuk-cegah-stunting.  
• Indonesian Government. 2024. “Rencana Kerja Pemerintah Tahun 2025”. https://private-rpjmn.bappenas.go.id/repository/files/shares/Dokumen2024/RENCANA_KERJA_PEMERINTAH_TAHUN_2024.pdf.  
• Indonesian Government 2025. “Ringkasan Rancangan Awal RPJMN 2025-2029”. https://private-rpjmn.bappenas.go.id/repository/files/shares/Dokumen2024/Ringkasan_Rancangan_Awal_RPJMN_2025_-_2029.pdf.  
• Indonesian Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources and Indonesian Ministry of State Secretary. 2021. “A Brief Summary of Good Practices and Challenges on Renewable Energy Development in Afghanistan, Indonesia, Madagascar and Nepal”. https://southsouth-galaxy.org/publications/a-brief-summary-of-good-practices-and-challenges-on-renewable-energy-development-in-afghanistan-indonesia-madagascar-and-nepal/.  
• Mas’oed, Mohtar. 1990. Ilmu Hubungan Internasional: Disiplin Dan Metodologi. Jakarta: LP3ES. 
• Mutanga, S.S, et. al. March 2024. “Implementation of water energy food-health nexus in a climate constrained world: a review for South Africa”. Frontiers in Environmental Science, Vol 12.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1307972. 
• UNDP. 2025. “The SDGs in Action”. https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals.  
• WEF Nexus Index. 2023. “Indonesia”. https://wefnexusindex.org/idn/.  

World Bank Group. 2021. “Indonesia Vision 2045: Toward Water Security”. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36727.