Exponential Technology Report 2026: Advanced Energy Storage

S.1Abstract

S.2Key messages

Six readings that frame the energy storage baseline, and the eight questions this edition answers, each with its status and source.

1. 108 GW was added worldwide in 2025, 40% more than in 2024.¹

   How fast is storage growing?Reported

2. About USD 140 per kWh installed for four-hour utility-scale systems in 2025.²

   What does it cost?Reported

3. Lithium iron phosphate, about 90% to 94% of deployments depending on the source.¹²

   Which chemistry dominates?Reported

4. Cobalt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, natural graphite in China, and refining across energy minerals.⁶⁷⁸

   Where is the supply concentrated?Reported

5. A battery passport from 18 February 2027 and safety documentation for stationary systems.¹⁰

   What does Europe require?Reported

6. Pumped storage USD 153 per kWh installed; other options cost more in 2025.²

   What do long-duration options cost?Reported

7. Incident rates on a common basis are not bound; one 2025 fire is recorded in a secondary source.¹⁴

   How safe is it?Reported

8. A grid that depends on batteries while supply stays concentrated. SCN-XT16-SUP-01

   What will 2027 test first?Expert input

S.3Headline finding

ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-FIN-002

IRENA reports that the installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage fell about 30% in 2025 to USD 140 per kWh, around 95% below the 2010 level.

Cheaper storage makes it a routine part of new solar projects: about a quarter of utility-scale solar commissioned in 2025 was paired with a battery². IRENA also notes that the rebound in battery metal prices in early 2026 is a reminder that input cost volatility can slow the trend². The IEA records that lithium prices almost doubled between January 2025 and April 2026⁸.

S.4At a glance

S.5What each steward reads in it

S.6What this edition is, and is not

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 1IEA (ed.), Global Energy Review 2026, section Technology: Battery storage (108 GW of new battery storage deployed in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; about 80% utility-scale; lithium iron phosphate about 90% of deployments; China about 60% of additions; battery-based UPS additions up 30% to 45 GW). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 2IRENA (ed.), Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025, 2026 (installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage about USD 140 per kWh, down close to 30%; total installed cost by storage technology; solar paired with batteries). International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 3US Energy Information Administration (ed.), Battery storage capacity averaged 70% growth over the last three years, Today in Energy, 7 August 2026 (43.6 GW at the end of 2025; nearly 52 GW at mid-2026; planned additions to 2028). EIA, Washington. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 6USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo share, export quotas 2026 and 2027, import reliance). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 7USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural) (China share of production, anode material imports, preliminary duties). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 10European Parliament and Council, Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (full text; battery passport from 18 February 2027; safety of stationary battery energy storage systems, Article 12; recycled content targets). Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 14Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Moss Landing Power Plant (fire of 16 January 2025; 300 MW and 1,200 MWh phase; about 1,200 residents evacuated). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

1.1The questions this part answers

Key questions

• Where is energy storage risk concentrated?
• Which couplings carry energy storage shocks into other systems?
• Which energy storage capabilities hold under compound stress?
• What must 2027 evidence measure first?

In this part

• Narrative
• Headline finding
• Lead figure
• Five footprint and governance chapters
• Twelve-domain reading
• Sector screens
• Dependency matrix
• Risk objects
• Capability ladder
• Scenario
• Three lenses
• Portfolio

1.2The argument

1.3Twenty couplings between five systems

The energy storage-centred matrix types the twenty couplings between the five core systems, read for their energy storage content. Strengths are Nexus estimates (ESTIMATED) from the cited evidence and analogue events; they set the graph that 2027 evidence will test.

Transmission paths

1. 01

   TRD → MIN → ENE

   Export controls or price swings on battery materials slow storage build-out.

   Reported China controls of October 2025⁸

2. 02

   MIN → FIN → ENE

   Lithium and graphite prices change installed cost.

   Reported lithium prices almost doubled, 2025 to 2026⁸

3. 03

   FIN → ENE

   Falling cost raises deployment and solar pairing.

   Reported cost fall of about 30% in 2025²

4. 04

   INF → ENE

   A fire or siting dispute can halt a project or a market.

   Inferred Moss Landing record¹⁴

5. 05

   GOV → DAT

   The battery passport sets data duties from 2027.

   Reported EU regulation¹⁰

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 1IEA (ed.), Global Energy Review 2026, section Technology: Battery storage (108 GW of new battery storage deployed in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; about 80% utility-scale; lithium iron phosphate about 90% of deployments; China about 60% of additions; battery-based UPS additions up 30% to 45 GW). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 2IRENA (ed.), Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025, 2026 (installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage about USD 140 per kWh, down close to 30%; total installed cost by storage technology; solar paired with batteries). International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 6USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo share, export quotas 2026 and 2027, import reliance). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 7USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural) (China share of production, anode material imports, preliminary duties). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 14Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Moss Landing Power Plant (fire of 16 January 2025; 300 MW and 1,200 MWh phase; about 1,200 residents evacuated). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 10European Parliament and Council, Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (full text; battery passport from 18 February 2027; safety of stationary battery energy storage systems, Article 12; recycled content targets). Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

2.1Headline finding

ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-FIN-002

IRENA reports that the installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage fell about 30% in 2025 to USD 140 per kWh, around 95% below the 2010 level.

Implication

Cheaper storage makes it a routine part of new solar projects: about a quarter of utility-scale solar commissioned in 2025 was paired with a battery². IRENA also notes that the rebound in battery metal prices in early 2026 is a reminder that input cost volatility can slow the trend². The IEA records that lithium prices almost doubled between January 2025 and April 2026⁸.

What would move it

Installed cost in the next IRENA report, lithium and graphite prices, and trade measures would each move this finding.

2.2Infrastructure

1. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-INF-001

   The IEA counts 108 GW of new battery storage capacity deployed worldwide in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; installed capacity is eleven times the 2021 level, and lithium iron phosphate is in about 90% of deployments.¹²

2. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-INF-004

   US utility-scale battery capacity was 43.6 GW at the end of 2025 and nearly 52 GW by mid-2026; operators plan 14 GW more in the second half of 2026, 26 GW in 2027 and 14 GW in 2028.³

2.3Finance

1. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-FIN-002

   IRENA reports that the installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage fell about 30% in 2025 to USD 140 per kWh, around 95% below the 2010 level of USD 2,634 per kWh.²

2. ReportedEQL 3NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-FIN-003

   Ember reports that battery costs fell 45% in 2025 after a fall of 20% in 2024, while deployment grew 46% to an estimated 250 GWh; this is a different measure from installed system cost.⁴²

2.4Minerals

1. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-MIN-005

   World lithium mine production rose 31% to about 290,000 tons in 2025, excluding the United States, and batteries account for 88% of lithium end use.⁵

2. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-MIN-006

   The Democratic Republic of the Congo accounted for an estimated 73% of mined cobalt in 2025 and set export quotas of up to 96,600 tons a year for 2026 and 2027.⁶²⁴

3. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-MIN-007

   China produced an estimated 82% of natural graphite in 2025, and the IEA reports that the average share of the top refined supplier across energy minerals reached about 72%.⁷⁸

2.5Governance

1. ReportedEQL 5NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-GOV-008

   Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 requires a battery passport from 18 February 2027 for industrial batteries above 2 kWh, sets safety requirements for stationary storage systems, and sets recycled content targets for cobalt, lead, lithium and nickel to be met by 2031.¹⁰¹¹

2. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-GOV-009

   China announced export controls on lithium-ion battery supply chains on 9 October 2025; the IEA records that proposed controls on batteries were suspended until November 2026.⁸

2.6Energy

1. ReportedEQL 3NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-ENE-010

   IRENA reports total installed cost of USD 153 per kWh for pumped storage, USD 245 for thermal storage, USD 381 for compressed air and USD 803 for gravity storage; one vendor states that its iron-air system can discharge for up to 100 hours.²¹³

2.7Safety

1. ReportedEQL 2NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-SAF-011

   A fire at a 300 MW, 1,200 MWh battery plant at Moss Landing, California, began on 16 January 2025 and about 1,200 residents were evacuated, according to a secondary summary.¹⁴

2.8Systemic

1. Expert inputEQL 2NRF-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-SYS-012

   The leading compound pathway for 2027 testing is a grid that depends on batteries while cell, cathode and graphite supply stays concentrated and trade measures change. § scenario

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 2IRENA (ed.), Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025, 2026 (installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage about USD 140 per kWh, down close to 30%; total installed cost by storage technology; solar paired with batteries). International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 1IEA (ed.), Global Energy Review 2026, section Technology: Battery storage (108 GW of new battery storage deployed in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; about 80% utility-scale; lithium iron phosphate about 90% of deployments; China about 60% of additions; battery-based UPS additions up 30% to 45 GW). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 3US Energy Information Administration (ed.), Battery storage capacity averaged 70% growth over the last three years, Today in Energy, 7 August 2026 (43.6 GW at the end of 2025; nearly 52 GW at mid-2026; planned additions to 2028). EIA, Washington. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 4Ember (ed.), Global Electricity Review 2026, 21 April 2026 (battery costs down 45% in 2025 after 20% in 2024; deployment up 46% to an estimated 250 GWh; 14% of new solar generation shifted). Ember, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 5USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lithium (world mine production 2025, end uses, prices, reserves). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 6USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo share, export quotas 2026 and 2027, import reliance). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 24Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo production share quoted at different values from cited sources). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 7USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural) (China share of production, anode material imports, preliminary duties). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 10European Parliament and Council, Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (full text; battery passport from 18 February 2027; safety of stationary battery energy storage systems, Article 12; recycled content targets). Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 11European Commission (ed.), Batteries (policy page; Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 in force 17 August 2023, applies from 18 February 2024; Delegated Regulation (EU) 2025/606 of 4 July 2025 on recycling efficiency). Directorate-General for Environment, Brussels. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 13Form Energy (ed.), Battery technology page (iron-air system described as able to discharge for up to 100 hours). Vendor statement, weak evidence, not independently tested. Form Energy, Somerville. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 14Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Moss Landing Power Plant (fire of 16 January 2025; 300 MW and 1,200 MWh phase; about 1,200 residents evacuated). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

3.1Where each system stood at evidence close

3.2Domain posture

Each of the twelve coupled domains is read through energy storage, in words, not scored. The coupling column names the dependency that carries energy storage risk into each domain.

3.3Sector screens

All sixteen sectors are screened for their dependence on energy storage, on the same grammar as every national edition. The evidence column describes coverage of the baseline evidence, not the performance of the sector.

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 1IEA (ed.), Global Energy Review 2026, section Technology: Battery storage (108 GW of new battery storage deployed in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; about 80% utility-scale; lithium iron phosphate about 90% of deployments; China about 60% of additions; battery-based UPS additions up 30% to 45 GW). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 2IRENA (ed.), Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025, 2026 (installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage about USD 140 per kWh, down close to 30%; total installed cost by storage technology; solar paired with batteries). International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 5USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lithium (world mine production 2025, end uses, prices, reserves). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 6USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo share, export quotas 2026 and 2027, import reliance). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 3US Energy Information Administration (ed.), Battery storage capacity averaged 70% growth over the last three years, Today in Energy, 7 August 2026 (43.6 GW at the end of 2025; nearly 52 GW at mid-2026; planned additions to 2028). EIA, Washington. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 4Ember (ed.), Global Electricity Review 2026, 21 April 2026 (battery costs down 45% in 2025 after 20% in 2024; deployment up 46% to an estimated 250 GWh; 14% of new solar generation shifted). Ember, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 10European Parliament and Council, Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (full text; battery passport from 18 February 2027; safety of stationary battery energy storage systems, Article 12; recycled content targets). Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 38UNVERIFIED, not opened: Dunn, B., Kamath, H. and Tarascon, J.-M., Electrical energy storage for the grid: a battery of choices, Science 334, 928 to 935, 2011, cited from memory. Observation year 2011. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 39UNVERIFIED, not opened: Schmidt, O. et al., Projecting the future levelized cost of electricity storage technologies, Joule 3, 81 to 100, 2019, cited from memory. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: Albertus, P., Manser, J.S. and Litzelman, S., Long-duration electricity storage applications, economics, and technologies, Joule 4, 21 to 32, 2020, cited from memory. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

4.1Risk objects

Each risk is read across the chain from hazard to consequence, with its status and evidence-quality level.

1. InferredEQL 4RSK-XT16-MIN-001

   Concentrated cell and materials supply

   Driver

   concentrated mining and refining; export controls⁶⁷⁸

   Exposure

   grid projects and manufacturers that rely on one cell chemistry

   Vulnerability

   few suppliers of cathode, anode and equipment

   Capacity

   diversification projects; recycling targets⁸¹⁰

   Cascade

   MIN → ENE → INF

   Horizon

   1 to 5 years

2. InferredEQL 3RSK-XT16-SAF-002

   Fire and thermal events at large sites

   Driver

   rapid growth in utility-scale capacity¹

   Exposure

   neighbouring residents and local grids

   Vulnerability

   older chemistries and dense sites; incident rates not bound¹⁴²⁵

   Capacity

   safety codes and large-scale fire testing³⁰³¹³²

   Cascade

   INF → ENE

   Horizon

   1 to 5 years

3. Expert inputEQL 2RSK-XT16-FIN-003

   Cost rebound from input prices

   Driver

   lithium price rise since early 2025⁸

   Exposure

   project economics and procurement schedules

   Vulnerability

   fixed-price contracts and thin margins

   Capacity

   chemistry diversification; sodium-ion options¹⁸⁴⁷

   Cascade

   FIN → ENE

   Horizon

   1 to 5 years

4. InferredEQL 3RSK-XT16-GOV-004

   Fragmented trade and safety rules

   Driver

   tariffs, export controls and divergent codes⁷⁸¹⁰

   Exposure

   developers and manufacturers selling in several markets

   Vulnerability

   uneven compliance capacity and testing capacity

   Capacity

   regulation and standards bodies¹⁰³³³⁶

   Cascade

   GOV → MIN, FIN

   Horizon

   1 to 5 years

4.2Capability ladder

Existence is not readiness. Each of the fifteen capability functions is placed on the ladder by the strongest public evidence for energy storage at the global level.

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 6USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo share, export quotas 2026 and 2027, import reliance). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 7USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural) (China share of production, anode material imports, preliminary duties). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 10European Parliament and Council, Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (full text; battery passport from 18 February 2027; safety of stationary battery energy storage systems, Article 12; recycled content targets). Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 1IEA (ed.), Global Energy Review 2026, section Technology: Battery storage (108 GW of new battery storage deployed in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; about 80% utility-scale; lithium iron phosphate about 90% of deployments; China about 60% of additions; battery-based UPS additions up 30% to 45 GW). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 14Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Moss Landing Power Plant (fire of 16 January 2025; 300 MW and 1,200 MWh phase; about 1,200 residents evacuated). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 25UNVERIFIED, not opened: EPRI (ed.), Battery Energy Storage System Failure Incident Database (the page returned no data; incident rate figures seen only in a secondary summary). Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 30UNVERIFIED, not opened: UL Standards and Engagement (ed.), UL 9540, Energy Storage Systems and Equipment, third edition 2023, cited from memory; the catalogue page showed no document text. UL, Northbrook. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 31UNVERIFIED, not opened: UL Standards and Engagement (ed.), UL 9540A, Test Method for Evaluating Thermal Runaway Fire Propagation in Battery Energy Storage Systems, cited from memory. UL, Northbrook. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 32UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Fire Protection Association (ed.), NFPA 855, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Energy Storage Systems, 2023 edition, cited from memory; the page showed only the title. NFPA, Quincy. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 18Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Sodium-ion battery (energy density figures; producer announcements of 2025; cost claims marked as needing update). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 47UNVERIFIED, not opened: CATL (ed.), announcement of the Naxtra sodium-ion battery brand, April 2025, known only from a secondary summary; the company news page was fetched but no article was read. Contemporary Amperex Technology, Ningde. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 33UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Electrotechnical Commission (ed.), IEC 62619:2022, Safety requirements for secondary lithium cells and batteries for use in industrial applications, cited from memory. IEC, Geneva. Observation year 2022. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 36UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Electrotechnical Commission (ed.), IEC 62933-5-2, Electrical energy storage systems, safety requirements for grid-integrated systems, electrochemical-based systems, cited from memory. IEC, Geneva. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 3US Energy Information Administration (ed.), Battery storage capacity averaged 70% growth over the last three years, Today in Energy, 7 August 2026 (43.6 GW at the end of 2025; nearly 52 GW at mid-2026; planned additions to 2028). EIA, Washington. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
16. 19Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Lithium iron phosphate battery (energy density, cycle life, market share reports). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
17. 26UNVERIFIED, not opened: US Department of Energy (ed.), Long Duration Storage Shot, launched 2021, cited from memory; the page address returned not found. US Department of Energy, Washington. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
18. 48UNVERIFIED, not opened: US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (ed.), Order No. 841, Electric Storage Participation in Markets Operated by Regional Transmission Organizations and Independent System Operators, February 2018, cited from memory. FERC, Washington. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
19. 38UNVERIFIED, not opened: Dunn, B., Kamath, H. and Tarascon, J.-M., Electrical energy storage for the grid: a battery of choices, Science 334, 928 to 935, 2011, cited from memory. Observation year 2011. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
20. 39UNVERIFIED, not opened: Schmidt, O. et al., Projecting the future levelized cost of electricity storage technologies, Joule 3, 81 to 100, 2019, cited from memory. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
21. 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: Albertus, P., Manser, J.S. and Litzelman, S., Long-duration electricity storage applications, economics, and technologies, Joule 4, 21 to 32, 2020, cited from memory. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
22. 41UNVERIFIED, not opened: Sepulveda, N.A. et al., Design space for long-duration energy storage in decarbonised power systems, Nature Energy 6, 506 to 516, 2021, cited from memory. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

5.1Assumptions

Scenario SCN-XT16-SUP-01: what is assumed, and what is held constant.

Baseline

the 2026 reference state in this edition

Drivers

a trade measure on cells, cathode or graphite takes effect while grids rely on batteries for evening peaks

Analogues

the October 2025 export controls and the 2025 to 2026 lithium price rise⁸

Interventions

none modelled: the specification describes the unmitigated case

Run state

narrative specification; quantified run scheduled for 2027

5.2The cascade, step by step

1. 1

   TRD → MIN

   a control on battery materials or equipment takes effect

   2025

2. 2

   MIN → FIN

   cell and cathode prices rise and project schedules slip

   2026

3. 3

   FIN → ENE

   fewer batteries are installed before evening peaks

   2026

4. 4

   ENE → INF

   operators lean on gas plants and demand response in peak hours

   2026

5. 5

   GOV → MIN

   regulators and states press for local processing and recycling

   2025

6. 6

   FIN → MIN

   investment shifts to other chemistries and recycling

   2026

5.3The scenario as a table of steps

How the shock in scenario SCN-XT16-SUP-01 would travel through Advanced Energy Storage’s coupled systems, step by step, under the assumptions the edition states.

A teaching model of a conditional scenario under the edition’s stated assumptions: not a forecast, not a prediction and not a warning. Sources: Advanced Energy Storage 2026, scenario SCN-XT16-SUP-01 (2026); Advanced Energy Storage 2026, references (NR-CIT-1) (2026).

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

6.1The other desks’ editions of this subject

Federation: each desk writes its own edition for the subjects in its remit. Until a desk releases, its edition shows its frame and the reading this edition printed for it.

6.2Three lenses

One edition, read by each steward. The lens of this site comes first.

6.3Standards, Academy and steward contributions

How the Nexus Standards drafts, the Risk Academy and the three stewards feed each quarterly edition for energy storage. The standards are a preparatory working draft (2026) and are cited as drafts, never as adopted standards.

6.4GCRI reading: the model card

GCRI’s reading of this edition is its model card: what the national model is, what it computes and where it stops. It is printed in full in Annex A, with the methods it belongs to. Annex A, methodology

6.5Global Risks Forum reading: editorial essays

Four signed essays by the Reports editorial team set out the positions this edition takes. They are interpretation, labelled as such; the evidence they draw on is in the findings register.

6.6Global Risks Alliance reading: 2027 energy storage readiness pack

The registers that open the 2027 global cycle. At baseline each is initialised from this edition.

Publication dispositions

• Publish
• Hold
• Needs evidence
• Restricted
• Superseded

6.7Nexus Standards reading: standards and regulatory watch

Instruments and published guidance that shape the systems in this edition, by status on the retrieval date. The edition assesses no one’s compliance.

• IN FORCE
• PUBLISHED
• PROGRAMME
• PUBLISHED · VOLUNTARY

6.8Risk Academy reading: literature and evidence review, science and assessments

The review behind this edition covers energy storage assessments, peer-reviewed science and the institutional reports that bind its findings. Systematic reviews for each agenda item begin in 2027.

Review protocol

Question

What does the published evidence establish about advanced energy storage as infrastructure and its couplings?

Sources searched

peer-reviewed journals; agencies and institutions; standards bodies and regulations; supply and market analyses

Window

releases available at evidence close, 30 September 2026

Selection

sources that bind or contextualise a finding in this edition

Next step

systematic reviews for agenda items 01 to 05 in 2027

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 2IRENA (ed.), Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025, 2026 (installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage about USD 140 per kWh, down close to 30%; total installed cost by storage technology; solar paired with batteries). International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 10European Parliament and Council, Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (full text; battery passport from 18 February 2027; safety of stationary battery energy storage systems, Article 12; recycled content targets). Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 11European Commission (ed.), Batteries (policy page; Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 in force 17 August 2023, applies from 18 February 2024; Delegated Regulation (EU) 2025/606 of 4 July 2025 on recycling efficiency). Directorate-General for Environment, Brussels. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 30UNVERIFIED, not opened: UL Standards and Engagement (ed.), UL 9540, Energy Storage Systems and Equipment, third edition 2023, cited from memory; the catalogue page showed no document text. UL, Northbrook. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 31UNVERIFIED, not opened: UL Standards and Engagement (ed.), UL 9540A, Test Method for Evaluating Thermal Runaway Fire Propagation in Battery Energy Storage Systems, cited from memory. UL, Northbrook. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 32UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Fire Protection Association (ed.), NFPA 855, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Energy Storage Systems, 2023 edition, cited from memory; the page showed only the title. NFPA, Quincy. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 33UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Electrotechnical Commission (ed.), IEC 62619:2022, Safety requirements for secondary lithium cells and batteries for use in industrial applications, cited from memory. IEC, Geneva. Observation year 2022. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 34UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Electrotechnical Commission (ed.), IEC 63056:2020, Safety requirements for secondary lithium cells and batteries for use in electrical energy storage systems, cited from memory. IEC, Geneva. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 35UNVERIFIED, not opened: United Nations (ed.), Manual of Tests and Criteria, section 38.3, lithium metal and lithium ion batteries, cited from memory; the page returned an access error. United Nations, Geneva. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 36UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Electrotechnical Commission (ed.), IEC 62933-5-2, Electrical energy storage systems, safety requirements for grid-integrated systems, electrochemical-based systems, cited from memory. IEC, Geneva. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 48UNVERIFIED, not opened: US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (ed.), Order No. 841, Electric Storage Participation in Markets Operated by Regional Transmission Organizations and Independent System Operators, February 2018, cited from memory. FERC, Washington. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 26UNVERIFIED, not opened: US Department of Energy (ed.), Long Duration Storage Shot, launched 2021, cited from memory; the page address returned not found. US Department of Energy, Washington. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 38UNVERIFIED, not opened: Dunn, B., Kamath, H. and Tarascon, J.-M., Electrical energy storage for the grid: a battery of choices, Science 334, 928 to 935, 2011, cited from memory. Observation year 2011. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 39UNVERIFIED, not opened: Schmidt, O. et al., Projecting the future levelized cost of electricity storage technologies, Joule 3, 81 to 100, 2019, cited from memory. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
16. 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: Albertus, P., Manser, J.S. and Litzelman, S., Long-duration electricity storage applications, economics, and technologies, Joule 4, 21 to 32, 2020, cited from memory. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
17. 41UNVERIFIED, not opened: Sepulveda, N.A. et al., Design space for long-duration energy storage in decarbonised power systems, Nature Energy 6, 506 to 516, 2021, cited from memory. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
18. 42UNVERIFIED, not opened: Hunter, C.A. et al., Techno-economic analysis of long-duration energy storage and flexible power generation technologies to support high-variable renewable energy grids, Joule 5, 2077 to 2101, 2021, cited from memory. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
19. 43UNVERIFIED, not opened: Armand, M. and Tarascon, J.-M., Building better batteries, Nature 451, 652 to 657, 2008, cited from memory. Observation year 2008. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
20. 44UNVERIFIED, not opened: Goodenough, J.B. and Park, K.-S., The Li-ion rechargeable battery: a perspective, Journal of the American Chemical Society 135, 1167 to 1176, 2013, cited from memory. Observation year 2013. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
21. 45UNVERIFIED, not opened: Larcher, D. and Tarascon, J.-M., Towards greener and more sustainable batteries for electrical energy storage, Nature Chemistry 7, 19 to 29, 2015, cited from memory. Observation year 2015. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
22. 1IEA (ed.), Global Energy Review 2026, section Technology: Battery storage (108 GW of new battery storage deployed in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; about 80% utility-scale; lithium iron phosphate about 90% of deployments; China about 60% of additions; battery-based UPS additions up 30% to 45 GW). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
23. 3US Energy Information Administration (ed.), Battery storage capacity averaged 70% growth over the last three years, Today in Energy, 7 August 2026 (43.6 GW at the end of 2025; nearly 52 GW at mid-2026; planned additions to 2028). EIA, Washington. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
24. 4Ember (ed.), Global Electricity Review 2026, 21 April 2026 (battery costs down 45% in 2025 after 20% in 2024; deployment up 46% to an estimated 250 GWh; 14% of new solar generation shifted). Ember, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
25. 9Wanner, B. (IEA), Batteries and Secure Energy Transitions, presentation slides, Energy Storage Summit, London, 18 February 2025 (slides summarising the IEA special report of 2024; storage capacity needed for tripled renewables; stated policies battery additions to 2030; lithium demand measures). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
26. 12IEA (ed.), Global EV Outlook 2026, launch webinar slides, 20 May 2026 (electric cars 25% of sales in 2025, 28% forecast for 2026; battery pack price declines in China). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
27. 28UNVERIFIED, not opened: BloombergNEF (ed.), Energy Storage System Cost Survey 2025, cited only as the source of the series reported by IRENA; not opened. BloombergNEF, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
28. 29UNVERIFIED, not opened: Lazard (ed.), Levelized Cost of Energy Plus, 2025 edition, cited from memory. Lazard, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
29. 27UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Renewable Energy Laboratory (ed.), Storage Futures Study, 2021, cited from memory; the host was not reachable. NREL, Golden. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
30. 5USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lithium (world mine production 2025, end uses, prices, reserves). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
31. 6USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo share, export quotas 2026 and 2027, import reliance). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
32. 7USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural) (China share of production, anode material imports, preliminary duties). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
33. 13Form Energy (ed.), Battery technology page (iron-air system described as able to discharge for up to 100 hours). Vendor statement, weak evidence, not independently tested. Form Energy, Somerville. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
34. 25UNVERIFIED, not opened: EPRI (ed.), Battery Energy Storage System Failure Incident Database (the page returned no data; incident rate figures seen only in a secondary summary). Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
35. 37UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Hydropower Association (ed.), World Hydropower Outlook 2025 (the page loaded but the report was not read; the 2025 pumped storage figure appears only in a secondary summary). IHA, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
36. 47UNVERIFIED, not opened: CATL (ed.), announcement of the Naxtra sodium-ion battery brand, April 2025, known only from a secondary summary; the company news page was fetched but no article was read. Contemporary Amperex Technology, Ningde. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
37. 46UNVERIFIED, not opened: Feng, X. et al., Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles: a review, Energy Storage Materials 10, 246 to 267, 2018, cited from memory. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
38. 14Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Moss Landing Power Plant (fire of 16 January 2025; 300 MW and 1,200 MWh phase; about 1,200 residents evacuated). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
39. 24Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo production share quoted at different values from cited sources). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

7.1Questions for the operational series

1. Q-01

   How many battery fires and thermal events occur per unit of capacity, and how do rates differ by chemistry and age?

   INI-XT16-SAF-01 · safety incident data; first output: incident register on a common basis.

2. Q-02

   Which cell, cathode, anode and equipment steps are single points of failure, and how do export controls change them?

   INI-XT16-SUP-02 · cell and materials supply; first output: dependence map.

3. Q-03

   How much long-duration storage is operating and under construction, by technology and duration?

   INI-XT16-LDS-03 · long-duration evidence; first output: deployment table by technology.

4. Q-04

   What recycling capacity exists, and what recovered volumes meet the recycled content targets?

   INI-XT16-REC-04 · recycling and passport; first output: capacity and passport readiness map.

5. Q-05

   How can installed cost, turnkey price and pack price be compared on one basis?

   INI-XT16-CST-05 · costs on a common basis; first output: cost bridge table.

6. Q-06

   Which national markets set storage targets or procurement rules, and how do they differ?

   To be admitted in 2027; first output: policy overlay.

7. Q-07

   What workforce exists for installation, operation and fire response?

   To be admitted in 2027; first output: scoping note.

8. Q-08

   Which readiness capabilities have been tested in real events, and which are only planned?

   Readiness capability register; first output: rung evidence for 15 functions.

7.2Portfolio proposed for the Q1 2027 alignment

Five initiatives and one Universe mission candidate are proposed for the 2027 storage portfolio. They are programme objects: no partner, funder or member is attached to them in this edition.

7.3The pathway

The energy storage edition reads national readiness chapters, the coupled sector reports on energy, minerals and infrastructure, and the global edition through one governed evidence graph. At baseline the federation is designed; the global energy and lifeline editions are drafted. This page states what exists today and what comes next.

1. 01

   National readiness chapters

   storage and grid-flexibility readiness in each national edition

   IN PREPARATION · national baselines

2. 02

   Sector couplings

   GS-02 energy · SR-04 minerals · XT-12 materials

   GS-02 DRAFTED · sector baselines

3. 03

   Technology system model

   cells, long-duration options, minerals, safety, governance

   v0 SPECIFIED · v1 with federation evidence

4. 04

   Strategic links

   SR-02 lifeline systems · SR-13 strategic technology

   PLANNED · strategic baselines

5. 05

   Universe

   annual proving environment

   CANDIDATE MISSION · mandate in 2027

6. 06

   XT-16 report

   this series

   BASELINE DRAFT · 2027 annual edition

7. 07

   Evidence and correction

   one graph, many projections

   OPEN · first correction cycle in 2027

7.4Universe 2027: evidence pack for the energy storage candidate mission

1. 01

   Mandate

2. 02

   Core Build · 1 month

3. 03

   Action · 1 week

4. 04

   Evidence seal

5. 05

   Portfolio correction

6. 06

   Next mandate

Mission

ID

MSN-XT16-2027-01 · Evening peak Universe mission

Role spine

Leadership sponsor · Institutional anchor · Mission lead: drawn from national pathways

Receiving actors

to be identified with the mandate

7.5Handoffs and routing

Where the baseline’s findings go next. A handoff routes a finding for awareness, review or work; it transfers no authority.

7.6Feeds and signal register

Escalation routes

• none · keep monitoring
• research question
• project
• risk object
• annual publication
• signal report

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 2IRENA (ed.), Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025, 2026 (installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage about USD 140 per kWh, down close to 30%; total installed cost by storage technology; solar paired with batteries). International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 14Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Moss Landing Power Plant (fire of 16 January 2025; 300 MW and 1,200 MWh phase; about 1,200 residents evacuated). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

8.1Cells, chemistries and storage technologies

Storage uses several technologies. Evidence is strongest for lithium-ion batteries and pumped storage, and weakest where claims rest on vendor announcements or secondary summaries.

Related editions

• GLB Global Systems
• GS-02 Energy
• SR-04 Critical Minerals and Strategic Materials
• XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
• XT-14 Fusion and Frontier Energy
• XT-17 Climate Technologies and Carbon Management

8.2Grid role, energy and water

Batteries shift solar output into the evening and are moving from short ancillary services toward energy shifting. Water and cooling use is not published on a common basis.

Related editions

• GLB Global Systems
• GS-02 Energy
• SR-04 Critical Minerals and Strategic Materials
• XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
• XT-14 Fusion and Frontier Energy
• XT-17 Climate Technologies and Carbon Management

8.3Minerals, materials and supply chain

Cells depend on lithium, graphite and cobalt, and on refining that is concentrated. Lithium prices almost doubled from January 2025 to April 2026.

Related editions

• GLB Global Systems
• GS-02 Energy
• SR-04 Critical Minerals and Strategic Materials
• XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
• XT-14 Fusion and Frontier Energy
• XT-17 Climate Technologies and Carbon Management

8.4Economy, investment and workforce

Costs fell sharply in 2025 and deployment rose. Investment totals and workforce numbers are the thin parts of the evidence.

Related editions

• GLB Global Systems
• GS-02 Energy
• SR-04 Critical Minerals and Strategic Materials
• XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
• XT-14 Fusion and Frontier Energy
• XT-17 Climate Technologies and Carbon Management

8.5Safety, regulation and governance watch

The nearest governance questions for storage are fire safety, battery passports, recycled content and trade measures. Rules exist, and several dates fall in 2026 and 2027.

Related editions

• GLB Global Systems
• GS-02 Energy
• SR-04 Critical Minerals and Strategic Materials
• XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
• XT-14 Fusion and Frontier Energy
• XT-17 Climate Technologies and Carbon Management

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 1IEA (ed.), Global Energy Review 2026, section Technology: Battery storage (108 GW of new battery storage deployed in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; about 80% utility-scale; lithium iron phosphate about 90% of deployments; China about 60% of additions; battery-based UPS additions up 30% to 45 GW). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 19Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Lithium iron phosphate battery (energy density, cycle life, market share reports). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 2IRENA (ed.), Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025, 2026 (installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage about USD 140 per kWh, down close to 30%; total installed cost by storage technology; solar paired with batteries). International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 17Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (round-trip efficiency of 70 to 80%; world capacity about 200 GW in 2025 attributed to the hydropower association). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 16Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Grid energy storage (pumped storage and battery capacity in 2023 from an IEA dataset). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 18Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Sodium-ion battery (energy density figures; producer announcements of 2025; cost claims marked as needing update). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 47UNVERIFIED, not opened: CATL (ed.), announcement of the Naxtra sodium-ion battery brand, April 2025, known only from a secondary summary; the company news page was fetched but no article was read. Contemporary Amperex Technology, Ningde. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 20Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Flow battery (vanadium system of 100 MW and 400 MWh in Dalian, 2022). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2022. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 21Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Compressed-air energy storage (Huntorf, McIntosh and Zhangjiakou plants). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2022. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 13Form Energy (ed.), Battery technology page (iron-air system described as able to discharge for up to 100 hours). Vendor statement, weak evidence, not independently tested. Form Energy, Somerville. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 4Ember (ed.), Global Electricity Review 2026, 21 April 2026 (battery costs down 45% in 2025 after 20% in 2024; deployment up 46% to an estimated 250 GWh; 14% of new solar generation shifted). Ember, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 5USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lithium (world mine production 2025, end uses, prices, reserves). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 6USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo share, export quotas 2026 and 2027, import reliance). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 7USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural) (China share of production, anode material imports, preliminary duties). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 24Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo production share quoted at different values from cited sources). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
16. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
17. 9Wanner, B. (IEA), Batteries and Secure Energy Transitions, presentation slides, Energy Storage Summit, London, 18 February 2025 (slides summarising the IEA special report of 2024; storage capacity needed for tripled renewables; stated policies battery additions to 2030; lithium demand measures). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
18. 26UNVERIFIED, not opened: US Department of Energy (ed.), Long Duration Storage Shot, launched 2021, cited from memory; the page address returned not found. US Department of Energy, Washington. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
19. 10European Parliament and Council, Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (full text; battery passport from 18 February 2027; safety of stationary battery energy storage systems, Article 12; recycled content targets). Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
20. 11European Commission (ed.), Batteries (policy page; Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 in force 17 August 2023, applies from 18 February 2024; Delegated Regulation (EU) 2025/606 of 4 July 2025 on recycling efficiency). Directorate-General for Environment, Brussels. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
21. 30UNVERIFIED, not opened: UL Standards and Engagement (ed.), UL 9540, Energy Storage Systems and Equipment, third edition 2023, cited from memory; the catalogue page showed no document text. UL, Northbrook. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
22. 31UNVERIFIED, not opened: UL Standards and Engagement (ed.), UL 9540A, Test Method for Evaluating Thermal Runaway Fire Propagation in Battery Energy Storage Systems, cited from memory. UL, Northbrook. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
23. 32UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Fire Protection Association (ed.), NFPA 855, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Energy Storage Systems, 2023 edition, cited from memory; the page showed only the title. NFPA, Quincy. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
24. 14Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Moss Landing Power Plant (fire of 16 January 2025; 300 MW and 1,200 MWh phase; about 1,200 residents evacuated). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

A.1Methods

The global baseline uses published values and four simple derivations. Each is shown in full so that any reader can reproduce it.

A.2Model card, Energy storage System Model v0

Model ID

MDL-XT16-STORAGE · v0.1

Purpose

represent advanced energy storage as infrastructure coupled to power systems, minerals, trade, finance, safety and recycling

Family

graph-based system of systems

Inputs

the cited sources of this edition; no proprietary data

Method

expert-specified coupling strengths (STRONG · MODERATE · WEAK) from assessments and analogue events

Validation

none yet, first validation against federation evidence in 2027

Uncertainty

qualitative; strengths are hypotheses, not measurements

Domain of validity

global scale; not for asset-, site- or country-level use

Reproducibility

strength table and sources published in this edition

A.3The baseline evidence cut

Every Nexus edition is published from a frozen evidence cut. The global baseline cut is documentary: it pins the exact edition of every source cited. Federation cuts begin with the first national Foundry cuts in 2027.

Cut ID

DC-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-B0

Type

baseline documentary cut

Resolution policy

pinned · as of 30 September 2026

Sources pinned

48 cited sources, each at the edition and access date in the references

Model runs

none at baseline, analytical values are stated with their method

Digest

computed at freeze and recorded in the publication record

Supersedes

nothing, first cut of the series

Superseded by

the 2027 energy storage annual cut

Lineage

1. 01

   source edition

2. 02

   pinned citation

3. 03

   finding

4. 04

   page

5. 05

   publication record

A.4Evidence age and coverage

A 2026 global edition rests on evidence observed in many different years. This page shows each time base, so that no single year label hides older evidence.

A.5Evidence cards, two anchor sources

Evidence cards to follow in 2027

• IRENA²: cost survey series and definitions
• IEA¹: regional data tables
• EIA³: generator inventory
• USGS⁵: next lithium summary

A.6Publication acceptance record

Editorial self-check at evidence close. Every applicable item carries a disposition; the remaining items are review, approval and deposit.

A.7Status words

A.8How the edition is made, released and corrected

Every edition is built from a sealed evidence cut, reviewed under three keys, signed and deposited before any site shows it as published; corrections go to Nexus Standards as change proposals and feed the next cut.

A teaching model of the process, not a forecast and not a record of any run; dates and counts on this page come from the programme record. Sources: Reports governance at GCRI Canada (2026); Zenodo, repository of record for Reports deposits (2026).

Lifecycle, one state at a time: Draft, Computed, Evidence bound, Reviewed, Approved for release, Published, Corrected, Superseded. This edition is a draft.

A.9Glossary and abbreviations

A.10Technical annex

A.1 · indicator definition: installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage

Construct

fully installed cost per unit of energy capacity for a utility-scale battery with four hours of storage at rated power

Unit

US dollars per kWh

Method

weighted average of reported project costs, as defined by the publisher

Source

IRENA Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025²

Uncertainty

not stated as an interval in the pages read

Known limits

turnkey price and battery cost indices measure different scopes and are not interchangeable

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 28UNVERIFIED, not opened: BloombergNEF (ed.), Energy Storage System Cost Survey 2025, cited only as the source of the series reported by IRENA; not opened. BloombergNEF, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 2IRENA (ed.), Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025, 2026 (installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage about USD 140 per kWh, down close to 30%; total installed cost by storage technology; solar paired with batteries). International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 37UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Hydropower Association (ed.), World Hydropower Outlook 2025 (the page loaded but the report was not read; the 2025 pumped storage figure appears only in a secondary summary). IHA, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 13Form Energy (ed.), Battery technology page (iron-air system described as able to discharge for up to 100 hours). Vendor statement, weak evidence, not independently tested. Form Energy, Somerville. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 25UNVERIFIED, not opened: EPRI (ed.), Battery Energy Storage System Failure Incident Database (the page returned no data; incident rate figures seen only in a secondary summary). Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 14Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Moss Landing Power Plant (fire of 16 January 2025; 300 MW and 1,200 MWh phase; about 1,200 residents evacuated). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 10European Parliament and Council, Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (full text; battery passport from 18 February 2027; safety of stationary battery energy storage systems, Article 12; recycled content targets). Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 18Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Sodium-ion battery (energy density figures; producer announcements of 2025; cost claims marked as needing update). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 47UNVERIFIED, not opened: CATL (ed.), announcement of the Naxtra sodium-ion battery brand, April 2025, known only from a secondary summary; the company news page was fetched but no article was read. Contemporary Amperex Technology, Ningde. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 15Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Battery storage power station (national capacities, cost series, incident trend, as reported from cited sources). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 22Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Hornsdale Power Reserve (150 MW and 193.5 MWh; grid service claims from cited sources). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 9Wanner, B. (IEA), Batteries and Secure Energy Transitions, presentation slides, Energy Storage Summit, London, 18 February 2025 (slides summarising the IEA special report of 2024; storage capacity needed for tripled renewables; stated policies battery additions to 2030; lithium demand measures). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 1IEA (ed.), Global Energy Review 2026, section Technology: Battery storage (108 GW of new battery storage deployed in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; about 80% utility-scale; lithium iron phosphate about 90% of deployments; China about 60% of additions; battery-based UPS additions up 30% to 45 GW). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 3US Energy Information Administration (ed.), Battery storage capacity averaged 70% growth over the last three years, Today in Energy, 7 August 2026 (43.6 GW at the end of 2025; nearly 52 GW at mid-2026; planned additions to 2028). EIA, Washington. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
16. 5USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lithium (world mine production 2025, end uses, prices, reserves). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

B.1The indicator set

B.2Global source register

The governed source set behind this edition. Each source keeps its authority, coverage, cadence and role; categories describe origin, not truth.

Domains bound by the register

• ENE
• INF
• FIN
• MIN
• TRD
• CLI
• DAT
• AIC
• WAT
• HLT

B.3Regional reading, energy storage across ten clusters

Regional plates follow with the regional editions. This page gives the regional reading of storage deployment and supply in table form and ranks no region.

B.4Cluster card: battery cell and graphite supply chain

• supply chain
• graphite
• cells
• single point

Systems in view

mining, refining, anode and cathode materials, cell manufacturing, storage projects

Defining events

China export controls of 9 October 2025⁸

Couplings

MIN → ENE materials; TRD → MIN export controls

Capability evidence

processing projects outside China reported⁷⁸

Gaps

cell capacity by country; recycling volumes; stocks

Agenda items

Q-02 · Q-04

B.5How countries appear in the energy storage edition

Countries enter the storage edition through the readiness chapters of their own national editions, on one card grammar. They are read against peer distributions and thresholds, never ranked.

Editions in the 2026 Baseline programme

How to read a country card

• Each system is shown against the distribution of its peers, with thresholds where they exist
• Couplings and risk objects come from the country’s own national edition
• Capability rungs record evidence, not a judgement of institutions
• Evidence age is printed, so older national data are visible as such

B.6Licences

B.7Formats and provenance

Provenance

Edition pack

The edition’s content pack (JSON), from which the print and web editions are built

Evidence cut

DC-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-B0, closed 30 September 2026

Reproducibility

sourced values cited; analytical values reproducible from stated parameters

Self-check

14 of 23 at evidence close; a fail on any item blocks release

Review

five passes scheduled before release (in Annex C)

Publisher of record

GCRI for the Nexus Consortium

Corrections

Registry correction pathway; upheld corrections are published as notices with a new version

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 1IEA (ed.), Global Energy Review 2026, section Technology: Battery storage (108 GW of new battery storage deployed in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; about 80% utility-scale; lithium iron phosphate about 90% of deployments; China about 60% of additions; battery-based UPS additions up 30% to 45 GW). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 2IRENA (ed.), Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025, 2026 (installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage about USD 140 per kWh, down close to 30%; total installed cost by storage technology; solar paired with batteries). International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 3US Energy Information Administration (ed.), Battery storage capacity averaged 70% growth over the last three years, Today in Energy, 7 August 2026 (43.6 GW at the end of 2025; nearly 52 GW at mid-2026; planned additions to 2028). EIA, Washington. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 5USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lithium (world mine production 2025, end uses, prices, reserves). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 6USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo share, export quotas 2026 and 2027, import reliance). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 7USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural) (China share of production, anode material imports, preliminary duties). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 9Wanner, B. (IEA), Batteries and Secure Energy Transitions, presentation slides, Energy Storage Summit, London, 18 February 2025 (slides summarising the IEA special report of 2024; storage capacity needed for tripled renewables; stated policies battery additions to 2030; lithium demand measures). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 17Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (round-trip efficiency of 70 to 80%; world capacity about 200 GW in 2025 attributed to the hydropower association). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 4Ember (ed.), Global Electricity Review 2026, 21 April 2026 (battery costs down 45% in 2025 after 20% in 2024; deployment up 46% to an estimated 250 GWh; 14% of new solar generation shifted). Ember, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 10European Parliament and Council, Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (full text; battery passport from 18 February 2027; safety of stationary battery energy storage systems, Article 12; recycled content targets). Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 11European Commission (ed.), Batteries (policy page; Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 in force 17 August 2023, applies from 18 February 2024; Delegated Regulation (EU) 2025/606 of 4 July 2025 on recycling efficiency). Directorate-General for Environment, Brussels. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 12IEA (ed.), Global EV Outlook 2026, launch webinar slides, 20 May 2026 (electric cars 25% of sales in 2025, 28% forecast for 2026; battery pack price declines in China). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 13Form Energy (ed.), Battery technology page (iron-air system described as able to discharge for up to 100 hours). Vendor statement, weak evidence, not independently tested. Form Energy, Somerville. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 23Wikipedia contributors (eds.), List of energy storage power plants (largest battery plants by energy capacity). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

C.148 sources

NR-CIT-1, editor first. A DOI is linked where the source has one; Nexus records carry a UNI once the catalogue allocates it (NS-1).

1. 1IEA (ed.), Global Energy Review 2026, section Technology: Battery storage (108 GW of new battery storage deployed in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; about 80% utility-scale; lithium iron phosphate about 90% of deployments; China about 60% of additions; battery-based UPS additions up 30% to 45 GW). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
2. 2IRENA (ed.), Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025, 2026 (installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage about USD 140 per kWh, down close to 30%; total installed cost by storage technology; solar paired with batteries). International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 6, chapter 7, chapter 8
3. 3US Energy Information Administration (ed.), Battery storage capacity averaged 70% growth over the last three years, Today in Energy, 7 August 2026 (43.6 GW at the end of 2025; nearly 52 GW at mid-2026; planned additions to 2028). EIA, Washington. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6
4. 4Ember (ed.), Global Electricity Review 2026, 21 April 2026 (battery costs down 45% in 2025 after 20% in 2024; deployment up 46% to an estimated 250 GWh; 14% of new solar generation shifted). Ember, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 6, chapter 8
5. 5USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lithium (world mine production 2025, end uses, prices, reserves). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 6, chapter 8
6. 6USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo share, export quotas 2026 and 2027, import reliance). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
7. 7USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural) (China share of production, anode material imports, preliminary duties). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
8. 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 5, chapter 6, chapter 7, chapter 8
9. 9Wanner, B. (IEA), Batteries and Secure Energy Transitions, presentation slides, Energy Storage Summit, London, 18 February 2025 (slides summarising the IEA special report of 2024; storage capacity needed for tripled renewables; stated policies battery additions to 2030; lithium demand measures). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
10. 10European Parliament and Council, Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (full text; battery passport from 18 February 2027; safety of stationary battery energy storage systems, Article 12; recycled content targets). Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
11. 11European Commission (ed.), Batteries (policy page; Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 in force 17 August 2023, applies from 18 February 2024; Delegated Regulation (EU) 2025/606 of 4 July 2025 on recycling efficiency). Directorate-General for Environment, Brussels. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 6, chapter 8
12. 12IEA (ed.), Global EV Outlook 2026, launch webinar slides, 20 May 2026 (electric cars 25% of sales in 2025, 28% forecast for 2026; battery pack price declines in China). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
13. 13Form Energy (ed.), Battery technology page (iron-air system described as able to discharge for up to 100 hours). Vendor statement, weak evidence, not independently tested. Form Energy, Somerville. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 6, chapter 8
14. 14Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Moss Landing Power Plant (fire of 16 January 2025; 300 MW and 1,200 MWh phase; about 1,200 residents evacuated). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 7, chapter 8
15. 15Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Battery storage power station (national capacities, cost series, incident trend, as reported from cited sources). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.
16. 16Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Grid energy storage (pumped storage and battery capacity in 2023 from an IEA dataset). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 8
17. 17Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (round-trip efficiency of 70 to 80%; world capacity about 200 GW in 2025 attributed to the hydropower association). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 8
18. 18Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Sodium-ion battery (energy density figures; producer announcements of 2025; cost claims marked as needing update). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 8
19. 19Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Lithium iron phosphate battery (energy density, cycle life, market share reports). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 8
20. 20Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Flow battery (vanadium system of 100 MW and 400 MWh in Dalian, 2022). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2022. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 8
21. 21Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Compressed-air energy storage (Huntorf, McIntosh and Zhangjiakou plants). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2022. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 8
22. 22Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Hornsdale Power Reserve (150 MW and 193.5 MWh; grid service claims from cited sources). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.
23. 23Wikipedia contributors (eds.), List of energy storage power plants (largest battery plants by energy capacity). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.
24. 24Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo production share quoted at different values from cited sources). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 6, chapter 8
25. 25UNVERIFIED, not opened: EPRI (ed.), Battery Energy Storage System Failure Incident Database (the page returned no data; incident rate figures seen only in a secondary summary). Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6
26. 26UNVERIFIED, not opened: US Department of Energy (ed.), Long Duration Storage Shot, launched 2021, cited from memory; the page address returned not found. US Department of Energy, Washington. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
27. 27UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Renewable Energy Laboratory (ed.), Storage Futures Study, 2021, cited from memory; the host was not reachable. NREL, Golden. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
28. 28UNVERIFIED, not opened: BloombergNEF (ed.), Energy Storage System Cost Survey 2025, cited only as the source of the series reported by IRENA; not opened. BloombergNEF, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
29. 29UNVERIFIED, not opened: Lazard (ed.), Levelized Cost of Energy Plus, 2025 edition, cited from memory. Lazard, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
30. 30UNVERIFIED, not opened: UL Standards and Engagement (ed.), UL 9540, Energy Storage Systems and Equipment, third edition 2023, cited from memory; the catalogue page showed no document text. UL, Northbrook. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
31. 31UNVERIFIED, not opened: UL Standards and Engagement (ed.), UL 9540A, Test Method for Evaluating Thermal Runaway Fire Propagation in Battery Energy Storage Systems, cited from memory. UL, Northbrook. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
32. 32UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Fire Protection Association (ed.), NFPA 855, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Energy Storage Systems, 2023 edition, cited from memory; the page showed only the title. NFPA, Quincy. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
33. 33UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Electrotechnical Commission (ed.), IEC 62619:2022, Safety requirements for secondary lithium cells and batteries for use in industrial applications, cited from memory. IEC, Geneva. Observation year 2022. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6
34. 34UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Electrotechnical Commission (ed.), IEC 63056:2020, Safety requirements for secondary lithium cells and batteries for use in electrical energy storage systems, cited from memory. IEC, Geneva. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
35. 35UNVERIFIED, not opened: United Nations (ed.), Manual of Tests and Criteria, section 38.3, lithium metal and lithium ion batteries, cited from memory; the page returned an access error. United Nations, Geneva. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
36. 36UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Electrotechnical Commission (ed.), IEC 62933-5-2, Electrical energy storage systems, safety requirements for grid-integrated systems, electrochemical-based systems, cited from memory. IEC, Geneva. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6
37. 37UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Hydropower Association (ed.), World Hydropower Outlook 2025 (the page loaded but the report was not read; the 2025 pumped storage figure appears only in a secondary summary). IHA, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
38. 38UNVERIFIED, not opened: Dunn, B., Kamath, H. and Tarascon, J.-M., Electrical energy storage for the grid: a battery of choices, Science 334, 928 to 935, 2011, cited from memory. Observation year 2011. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6
39. 39UNVERIFIED, not opened: Schmidt, O. et al., Projecting the future levelized cost of electricity storage technologies, Joule 3, 81 to 100, 2019, cited from memory. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6
40. 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: Albertus, P., Manser, J.S. and Litzelman, S., Long-duration electricity storage applications, economics, and technologies, Joule 4, 21 to 32, 2020, cited from memory. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6
41. 41UNVERIFIED, not opened: Sepulveda, N.A. et al., Design space for long-duration energy storage in decarbonised power systems, Nature Energy 6, 506 to 516, 2021, cited from memory. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6
42. 42UNVERIFIED, not opened: Hunter, C.A. et al., Techno-economic analysis of long-duration energy storage and flexible power generation technologies to support high-variable renewable energy grids, Joule 5, 2077 to 2101, 2021, cited from memory. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
43. 43UNVERIFIED, not opened: Armand, M. and Tarascon, J.-M., Building better batteries, Nature 451, 652 to 657, 2008, cited from memory. Observation year 2008. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
44. 44UNVERIFIED, not opened: Goodenough, J.B. and Park, K.-S., The Li-ion rechargeable battery: a perspective, Journal of the American Chemical Society 135, 1167 to 1176, 2013, cited from memory. Observation year 2013. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
45. 45UNVERIFIED, not opened: Larcher, D. and Tarascon, J.-M., Towards greener and more sustainable batteries for electrical energy storage, Nature Chemistry 7, 19 to 29, 2015, cited from memory. Observation year 2015. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
46. 46UNVERIFIED, not opened: Feng, X. et al., Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles: a review, Energy Storage Materials 10, 246 to 267, 2018, cited from memory. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
47. 47UNVERIFIED, not opened: CATL (ed.), announcement of the Naxtra sodium-ion battery brand, April 2025, known only from a secondary summary; the company news page was fetched but no article was read. Contemporary Amperex Technology, Ningde. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
48. 48UNVERIFIED, not opened: US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (ed.), Order No. 841, Electric Storage Participation in Markets Operated by Regional Transmission Organizations and Independent System Operators, February 2018, cited from memory. FERC, Washington. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6

C.2Publication record

Colophon

Format

A4 portrait · screen, print and archival PDF

Typefaces

Space Grotesk (display) · Geist (text) · IBM Plex Sans Italic (standfirsts) · IBM Plex Mono (data)

Design standard

Reports Foundational Edition, Volume I, Part VII

Accessibility

tagged PDF and HTML targets; text alternatives for every figure

Production

Reports editorial team, GCRI

Release path for this version