Exponential Technology Report 2026: Neurotechnology and Human–Machine Interfaces

S.1Abstract

S.2Key messages

Six readings that frame the neurotechnology baseline, and the eight questions this edition answers, each with its status and source.

1. In single participants, at 62 to 78 words per minute and up to 97.5% accuracy.¹²³

   Do speech interfaces work?Reported

2. One interface was stable over one year and an endovascular array recorded for one year.⁷⁸

   Can an implant last?Reported

3. Imagined sentences were decoded in four participants; safeguards are proposed.⁵

   Can inner speech be read?Reported

4. UNESCO adopted a Recommendation; Colorado covers neural data; a US Senate bill is in committee.¹⁰¹⁴¹¹

   What do the rules say?Reported

5. A 2021 constitutional rule and a 2023 deletion order; inferred data remain a grey zone.¹⁷¹⁸

   What does Chile show?Reported

6. A USD 650 million company round in 2025; market size is not on a common basis.²⁰²⁹

   What does the money look like?Reported

7. Not bound in this edition.⁹

   What is the power and heat footprint?Not bound

8. Consumer neural data outside medical rules while clinical interfaces advance. SCN-XT20-NDT-01

   What will 2027 test first?Expert input

S.3Headline finding

ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-INF-001

Two Nature papers of August 2023 reported speech decoding at 62 and 78 words per minute in single participants with paralysis.

Decoding of attempted speech into text is now fast enough to support conversation in a laboratory setting for a few people. The first study reported a 23.8% word error rate on a large vocabulary and the second a median of 25%; a later study in one participant reported 97.5% accuracy beyond eight months³. Each result rests on one participant and a research system.

S.4At a glance

S.5What each steward reads in it

S.6What this edition is, and is not

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 1Willett, F.R. et al., A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis, Nature 620(7976), 1031 to 1036, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: 62 words per minute; 23.8% word error rate on 125,000 words; 9.1% on 50 words). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 2Metzger, S.L. et al., A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control, Nature 620(7976), 1037 to 1046, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: median 78 words per minute; median word error rate 25%). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 3Card, N.S. et al., An accurate and rapidly calibrating speech neuroprosthesis, medRxiv preprint, 26 December 2023 (preprint record read: 99.6% on 50 words on day 1; 90.2% on 125,000 words on day 2; 97.5% beyond eight months; 256 electrodes; the record notes the New England Journal of Medicine version 391(7), 609 to 618, August 2024). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 7Lorach, H. et al., Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain-spine interface, Nature 618(7963), 126 to 133, published online 24 May 2023 (reference record read: fully implanted; stable for over one year; one man with chronic tetraplegia). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 8Chetty, N. et al., Signal properties and stability of a chronically implanted endovascular brain computer interface, medRxiv preprint, 25 September 2025 (preprint record read: five participants; 16-channel array; one year; not peer reviewed). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 20Zeff, M., Elon Musk Neuralink closes a USD 650 million Series E (trade report, 2 June 2025; page read; vendor statement as reported: five people implanted; valuation of about USD 9 billion pre-money from an earlier press report). TechCrunch, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 16Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and six other bodies (eds.), Implementation Opinions on Promoting the Innovation and Development of the Brain-Computer Interface Industry, MIIT (2025) No. 164, 23 July 2025, English translation by the Center for Security and Emerging Technology, 18 December 2025 (translation page read). Georgetown University, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 10UNESCO (ed.), Recommendation on the Ethics of Neurotechnology (page read: adopted November 2025 at the 43rd session of the General Conference; mandate entrusted by 194 Member States in 2023; the page states no neural data provisions). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 14Colorado General Assembly (ed.), HB24-1058 Protect Privacy of Biological Data (bill page read: signed 17 April 2024; effective 7 August 2024). Colorado General Assembly, Denver. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 11United States Senate (ed.), Management of Individuals Neural Data Act of 2025 (MIND Act), S. 2925, 119th Congress, introduced text (text read: FTC study and report within one year of enactment; USD 10 million authorised; referred to committee). US Government Publishing Office, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 5Kunz, E.M. et al., Inner speech in motor cortex and implications for speech neuroprostheses, Cell 188(17), 4658 to 4673, published online 14 August 2025 (reference record read: four participants). Cell Press, Cambridge MA. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 17Cornejo-Plaza, M.I., Cippitani, R. and Pasquino, V., Chilean Supreme Court ruling on the protection of brain activity: neurorights, personal data protection, and neurodata, Frontiers in Psychology 15, 27 February 2024 (reference record read). Frontiers Media, Lausanne. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 18Lee, B.H., Even Chile neurorights leave inferred mental data in a gray zone, Stanford Law School Law and Biosciences Blog, 27 April 2026 (blog page read; commentary, not a legal text). Stanford University, Stanford. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 29UNVERIFIED, not opened: market-research reports on the neurotechnology and brain-computer interface markets for 2025 (several firms; figures differ by a large factor depending on definition), taken from search-result summaries; weak evidence and no figure used. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 9US Food and Drug Administration (ed.), Implanted Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) Devices for Patients with Paralysis or Amputation: Non-clinical Testing and Clinical Considerations, final guidance, May 2021 (guidance page read). Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Silver Spring. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

1.1The questions this part answers

Key questions

• Where is neurotechnology risk concentrated?
• Which couplings carry neurotechnology shocks into other systems?
• Which neurotechnology capabilities hold under compound stress?
• What must 2027 evidence measure first?

In this part

• Narrative
• Headline finding
• Lead figure
• Five footprint and governance chapters
• Twelve-domain reading
• Sector screens
• Dependency matrix
• Risk objects
• Capability ladder
• Scenario
• Three lenses
• Portfolio

1.2The argument

1.3Twenty couplings between five systems

The neurotechnology-centred matrix types the twenty couplings between the five core systems, read for their neurotechnology content. Strengths are Nexus estimates (ESTIMATED) from the cited evidence and analogue events; they set the graph that 2027 evidence will test.

Transmission paths

1. 01

   INF → HLT

   Implanted interfaces restore communication and movement in single participants.

   Reported speech and spinal results¹⁷

2. 02

   INF → DAT

   Neural signals can carry intent and inner speech.

   Reported inner speech study⁵

3. 03

   FIN → INF

   Investment funds trials and manufacturing.

   Reported company round²⁰

4. 04

   BIO → INF

   Tissue response and electrode materials limit long-term signal.

   Inferred literature²²²⁴

5. 05

   GOV → DAT

   Laws and recommendations set how neural data may be used.

   Reported UNESCO, Colorado, US bill¹⁰¹⁴¹¹

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 1Willett, F.R. et al., A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis, Nature 620(7976), 1031 to 1036, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: 62 words per minute; 23.8% word error rate on 125,000 words; 9.1% on 50 words). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 5Kunz, E.M. et al., Inner speech in motor cortex and implications for speech neuroprostheses, Cell 188(17), 4658 to 4673, published online 14 August 2025 (reference record read: four participants). Cell Press, Cambridge MA. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 9US Food and Drug Administration (ed.), Implanted Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) Devices for Patients with Paralysis or Amputation: Non-clinical Testing and Clinical Considerations, final guidance, May 2021 (guidance page read). Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Silver Spring. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 2Metzger, S.L. et al., A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control, Nature 620(7976), 1037 to 1046, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: median 78 words per minute; median word error rate 25%). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 3Card, N.S. et al., An accurate and rapidly calibrating speech neuroprosthesis, medRxiv preprint, 26 December 2023 (preprint record read: 99.6% on 50 words on day 1; 90.2% on 125,000 words on day 2; 97.5% beyond eight months; 256 electrodes; the record notes the New England Journal of Medicine version 391(7), 609 to 618, August 2024). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 7Lorach, H. et al., Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain-spine interface, Nature 618(7963), 126 to 133, published online 24 May 2023 (reference record read: fully implanted; stable for over one year; one man with chronic tetraplegia). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 10UNESCO (ed.), Recommendation on the Ethics of Neurotechnology (page read: adopted November 2025 at the 43rd session of the General Conference; mandate entrusted by 194 Member States in 2023; the page states no neural data provisions). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 14Colorado General Assembly (ed.), HB24-1058 Protect Privacy of Biological Data (bill page read: signed 17 April 2024; effective 7 August 2024). Colorado General Assembly, Denver. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 17Cornejo-Plaza, M.I., Cippitani, R. and Pasquino, V., Chilean Supreme Court ruling on the protection of brain activity: neurorights, personal data protection, and neurodata, Frontiers in Psychology 15, 27 February 2024 (reference record read). Frontiers Media, Lausanne. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 11United States Senate (ed.), Management of Individuals Neural Data Act of 2025 (MIND Act), S. 2925, 119th Congress, introduced text (text read: FTC study and report within one year of enactment; USD 10 million authorised; referred to committee). US Government Publishing Office, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 16Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and six other bodies (eds.), Implementation Opinions on Promoting the Innovation and Development of the Brain-Computer Interface Industry, MIIT (2025) No. 164, 23 July 2025, English translation by the Center for Security and Emerging Technology, 18 December 2025 (translation page read). Georgetown University, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 22Ma, X. et al., Using adversarial networks to extend brain computer interface decoding accuracy over time, eLife 12, e84296, 2023 (reference record read). eLife Sciences, Cambridge. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 24Feng, Y. et al., Brain-computer interfaces: the dawn of a new era in disease treatment, Exploration 6(3), 2026 (reference record read: electrode biocompatibility and signal resolution named as challenges). Wiley, Beijing. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 29UNVERIFIED, not opened: market-research reports on the neurotechnology and brain-computer interface markets for 2025 (several firms; figures differ by a large factor depending on definition), taken from search-result summaries; weak evidence and no figure used. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 20Zeff, M., Elon Musk Neuralink closes a USD 650 million Series E (trade report, 2 June 2025; page read; vendor statement as reported: five people implanted; valuation of about USD 9 billion pre-money from an earlier press report). TechCrunch, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

2.1Headline finding

ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-INF-001

Two Nature papers of August 2023 reported speech decoding at 62 and 78 words per minute in single participants with paralysis.

Implication

Decoding of attempted speech into text is now fast enough to support conversation in a laboratory setting for a few people. The first study reported a 23.8% word error rate on a large vocabulary and the second a median of 25%; a later study in one participant reported 97.5% accuracy beyond eight months³. Each result rests on one participant and a research system.

What would move it

Results in more participants, peer-reviewed long-term outcomes and home use would each move this finding.

2.2Infrastructure

1. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-INF-001

   Two Nature papers of 2023 reported speech decoding at 62 words per minute on a 125,000-word vocabulary with a 23.8% word error rate, and at a median of 78 words per minute with a median word error rate of 25%, each in one participant.¹²

2. ReportedEQL 3NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-INF-002

   A speech neuroprosthesis in one participant reached 97.5% accuracy on a 125,000-word vocabulary beyond eight months after implantation, using 256 intracortical electrodes.³

3. ReportedEQL 3NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-INF-004

   A preprint of five participants with an endovascular 16-channel array reports movement-related signals recorded over one year, with no significant change in impedance for most channels.⁸

2.3Health

1. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-HLT-003

   A fully implanted brain-spine interface in one man with chronic tetraplegia stayed reliable for over one year and supported walking overground with crutches even when switched off.⁷

2.4Governance

1. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-GOV-005

   Seven Chinese bodies led by the industry ministry issued an implementation opinion on 23 July 2025 that sets targets for 2027 and 2030, including two to three industrial cluster zones by 2027 and two to three globally influential enterprises by 2030.¹⁶

2. ReportedEQL 3NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-GOV-007

   Colorado extended its privacy act to neural data in a bill signed on 17 April 2024 and in force on 7 August 2024; Chile amended its constitution in 2021 and its Supreme Court ordered deletion of one user headset data in August 2023.¹⁴¹⁷¹⁸

3. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-GOV-008

   UNESCO adopted a Recommendation on the Ethics of Neurotechnology at the 43rd session of its General Conference in November 2025, as a framework of values, principles and policy actions.¹⁰

4. ReportedEQL 4NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-GOV-009

   The MIND Act of 2025 (S. 2925) would direct the FTC to study neural data and report to Congress within one year of enactment, and authorises USD 10 million for the study; it was referred to committee.¹¹¹²

5. ReportedEQL 3NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-GOV-010

   The FDA issued final guidance in May 2021 on non-clinical testing and study design for implanted interfaces, and a company reported in April 2025 a 510(k) clearance for a cortical-surface array for up to 30 days of implantation.⁹¹⁵

2.5Data and digital

1. ReportedEQL 3NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-DAT-006

   A 2025 study in four participants decoded imagined sentences in real time from motor cortex, found a separate neural dimension that distinguishes inner speech from attempted speech, and proposed methods to prevent unintended decoding of private inner speech.⁵

2.6Finance

1. ReportedEQL 2NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-FIN-011

   Neuralink stated in a blog post that five people with severe paralysis had been implanted and closed a USD 650 million round in June 2025; a registry entry for its PRIME study shows an estimated enrolment of 15 and a start date of 9 January 2024.¹³²⁰

2.7Systemic

1. Expert inputEQL 2NRF-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-SYS-012

   The leading compound pathway for 2027 testing is neural data from consumer devices sitting outside medical-device rules while clinical interfaces advance. § scenario

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 1Willett, F.R. et al., A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis, Nature 620(7976), 1031 to 1036, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: 62 words per minute; 23.8% word error rate on 125,000 words; 9.1% on 50 words). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 2Metzger, S.L. et al., A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control, Nature 620(7976), 1037 to 1046, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: median 78 words per minute; median word error rate 25%). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 3Card, N.S. et al., An accurate and rapidly calibrating speech neuroprosthesis, medRxiv preprint, 26 December 2023 (preprint record read: 99.6% on 50 words on day 1; 90.2% on 125,000 words on day 2; 97.5% beyond eight months; 256 electrodes; the record notes the New England Journal of Medicine version 391(7), 609 to 618, August 2024). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 8Chetty, N. et al., Signal properties and stability of a chronically implanted endovascular brain computer interface, medRxiv preprint, 25 September 2025 (preprint record read: five participants; 16-channel array; one year; not peer reviewed). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 7Lorach, H. et al., Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain-spine interface, Nature 618(7963), 126 to 133, published online 24 May 2023 (reference record read: fully implanted; stable for over one year; one man with chronic tetraplegia). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 16Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and six other bodies (eds.), Implementation Opinions on Promoting the Innovation and Development of the Brain-Computer Interface Industry, MIIT (2025) No. 164, 23 July 2025, English translation by the Center for Security and Emerging Technology, 18 December 2025 (translation page read). Georgetown University, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 14Colorado General Assembly (ed.), HB24-1058 Protect Privacy of Biological Data (bill page read: signed 17 April 2024; effective 7 August 2024). Colorado General Assembly, Denver. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 17Cornejo-Plaza, M.I., Cippitani, R. and Pasquino, V., Chilean Supreme Court ruling on the protection of brain activity: neurorights, personal data protection, and neurodata, Frontiers in Psychology 15, 27 February 2024 (reference record read). Frontiers Media, Lausanne. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 18Lee, B.H., Even Chile neurorights leave inferred mental data in a gray zone, Stanford Law School Law and Biosciences Blog, 27 April 2026 (blog page read; commentary, not a legal text). Stanford University, Stanford. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 10UNESCO (ed.), Recommendation on the Ethics of Neurotechnology (page read: adopted November 2025 at the 43rd session of the General Conference; mandate entrusted by 194 Member States in 2023; the page states no neural data provisions). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 11United States Senate (ed.), Management of Individuals Neural Data Act of 2025 (MIND Act), S. 2925, 119th Congress, introduced text (text read: FTC study and report within one year of enactment; USD 10 million authorised; referred to committee). US Government Publishing Office, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 12US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation (ed.), release on the introduction of the MIND Act, 24 September 2025 (release read: names Colorado, California, Montana and Connecticut as states with neural data laws). US Senate, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 9US Food and Drug Administration (ed.), Implanted Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) Devices for Patients with Paralysis or Amputation: Non-clinical Testing and Clinical Considerations, final guidance, May 2021 (guidance page read). Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Silver Spring. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 15Precision Neuroscience (ed.), company release on FDA 510(k) clearance of the Layer 7 Cortical Interface, 17 April 2025 (release read; vendor announcement, weak evidence: up to 30 days of implantation; 37 patients tested). Precision Neuroscience, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 5Kunz, E.M. et al., Inner speech in motor cortex and implications for speech neuroprostheses, Cell 188(17), 4658 to 4673, published online 14 August 2025 (reference record read: four participants). Cell Press, Cambridge MA. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
16. 13ClinicalTrials.gov (ed.), PRIME: An Early Feasibility Study of a Precise Robotically Implanted Brain-Computer Interface for the Control of External Devices, NCT06429735 (record read: recruiting; start 9 January 2024; estimated enrolment 15; updated January 2026; sponsor-supplied entry). National Library of Medicine, Bethesda. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
17. 20Zeff, M., Elon Musk Neuralink closes a USD 650 million Series E (trade report, 2 June 2025; page read; vendor statement as reported: five people implanted; valuation of about USD 9 billion pre-money from an earlier press report). TechCrunch, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

3.1Where each system stood at evidence close

3.2Domain posture

Each of the twelve coupled domains is read through neurotechnology, in words, not scored. The coupling column names the dependency that carries neurotechnology risk into each domain.

3.3Sector screens

All sixteen sectors are screened for their dependence on neurotechnology, on the same grammar as every national edition. The evidence column describes coverage of the baseline evidence, not the performance of the sector.

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 1Willett, F.R. et al., A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis, Nature 620(7976), 1031 to 1036, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: 62 words per minute; 23.8% word error rate on 125,000 words; 9.1% on 50 words). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 3Card, N.S. et al., An accurate and rapidly calibrating speech neuroprosthesis, medRxiv preprint, 26 December 2023 (preprint record read: 99.6% on 50 words on day 1; 90.2% on 125,000 words on day 2; 97.5% beyond eight months; 256 electrodes; the record notes the New England Journal of Medicine version 391(7), 609 to 618, August 2024). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 8Chetty, N. et al., Signal properties and stability of a chronically implanted endovascular brain computer interface, medRxiv preprint, 25 September 2025 (preprint record read: five participants; 16-channel array; one year; not peer reviewed). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 20Zeff, M., Elon Musk Neuralink closes a USD 650 million Series E (trade report, 2 June 2025; page read; vendor statement as reported: five people implanted; valuation of about USD 9 billion pre-money from an earlier press report). TechCrunch, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 12US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation (ed.), release on the introduction of the MIND Act, 24 September 2025 (release read: names Colorado, California, Montana and Connecticut as states with neural data laws). US Senate, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 13ClinicalTrials.gov (ed.), PRIME: An Early Feasibility Study of a Precise Robotically Implanted Brain-Computer Interface for the Control of External Devices, NCT06429735 (record read: recruiting; start 9 January 2024; estimated enrolment 15; updated January 2026; sponsor-supplied entry). National Library of Medicine, Bethesda. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 7Lorach, H. et al., Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain-spine interface, Nature 618(7963), 126 to 133, published online 24 May 2023 (reference record read: fully implanted; stable for over one year; one man with chronic tetraplegia). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 5Kunz, E.M. et al., Inner speech in motor cortex and implications for speech neuroprostheses, Cell 188(17), 4658 to 4673, published online 14 August 2025 (reference record read: four participants). Cell Press, Cambridge MA. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 10UNESCO (ed.), Recommendation on the Ethics of Neurotechnology (page read: adopted November 2025 at the 43rd session of the General Conference; mandate entrusted by 194 Member States in 2023; the page states no neural data provisions). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 11United States Senate (ed.), Management of Individuals Neural Data Act of 2025 (MIND Act), S. 2925, 119th Congress, introduced text (text read: FTC study and report within one year of enactment; USD 10 million authorised; referred to committee). US Government Publishing Office, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 14Colorado General Assembly (ed.), HB24-1058 Protect Privacy of Biological Data (bill page read: signed 17 April 2024; effective 7 August 2024). Colorado General Assembly, Denver. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 17Cornejo-Plaza, M.I., Cippitani, R. and Pasquino, V., Chilean Supreme Court ruling on the protection of brain activity: neurorights, personal data protection, and neurodata, Frontiers in Psychology 15, 27 February 2024 (reference record read). Frontiers Media, Lausanne. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 2Metzger, S.L. et al., A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control, Nature 620(7976), 1037 to 1046, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: median 78 words per minute; median word error rate 25%). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

4.1Risk objects

Each risk is read across the chain from hazard to consequence, with its status and evidence-quality level.

1. InferredEQL 3RSK-XT20-DAT-001

   Neural data outside medical and privacy rules

   Driver

   consumer headsets and decoders that infer mental states⁵¹⁸

   Exposure

   users of consumer devices; participants in speech trials

   Vulnerability

   inferred data fall in a grey zone in Chile¹⁸; US rules differ by state¹⁴¹²

   Capacity

   UNESCO Recommendation; state laws; a Senate study bill¹⁰¹⁴¹¹

   Cascade

   DAT → FIN, HLT, GOV

   Horizon

   1 to 5 years

2. InferredEQL 3RSK-XT20-INF-002

   Long-term signal loss and device failure

   Driver

   neuron turnover, electrode biocompatibility and drift²²²⁴

   Exposure

   implanted participants who depend on a device

   Vulnerability

   no common failure reporting; company support may end

   Capacity

   drift-correction methods; one-year stability reports⁷⁸²²

   Cascade

   INF → HLT

   Horizon

   1 to 10 years

3. InferredEQL 3RSK-XT20-GOV-003

   Fragmented rules and uneven access

   Driver

   different laws, devices cleared on different pathways, national industrial targets⁹¹⁵¹⁶

   Exposure

   cross-border trials and consumer products

   Vulnerability

   consumer devices outside medical pathways¹⁸

   Capacity

   guidance, recommendations and standards⁹¹⁰⁴⁰

   Cascade

   GOV → INF, DAT

   Horizon

   1 to 5 years

4. Expert inputEQL 2RSK-XT20-FIN-004

   Company claims ahead of peer-reviewed evidence

   Driver

   large rounds and company announcements²⁰²⁷³⁰

   Exposure

   patients, funders and public debate

   Vulnerability

   claims not yet peer reviewed¹³¹⁵

   Capacity

   peer review and registry entries¹³

   Cascade

   FIN → HLT, GOV

   Horizon

   1 to 5 years

4.2Capability ladder

Existence is not readiness. Each of the fifteen capability functions is placed on the ladder by the strongest public evidence for neurotechnology at the global level.

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 5Kunz, E.M. et al., Inner speech in motor cortex and implications for speech neuroprostheses, Cell 188(17), 4658 to 4673, published online 14 August 2025 (reference record read: four participants). Cell Press, Cambridge MA. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 18Lee, B.H., Even Chile neurorights leave inferred mental data in a gray zone, Stanford Law School Law and Biosciences Blog, 27 April 2026 (blog page read; commentary, not a legal text). Stanford University, Stanford. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 14Colorado General Assembly (ed.), HB24-1058 Protect Privacy of Biological Data (bill page read: signed 17 April 2024; effective 7 August 2024). Colorado General Assembly, Denver. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 12US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation (ed.), release on the introduction of the MIND Act, 24 September 2025 (release read: names Colorado, California, Montana and Connecticut as states with neural data laws). US Senate, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 10UNESCO (ed.), Recommendation on the Ethics of Neurotechnology (page read: adopted November 2025 at the 43rd session of the General Conference; mandate entrusted by 194 Member States in 2023; the page states no neural data provisions). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 11United States Senate (ed.), Management of Individuals Neural Data Act of 2025 (MIND Act), S. 2925, 119th Congress, introduced text (text read: FTC study and report within one year of enactment; USD 10 million authorised; referred to committee). US Government Publishing Office, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 22Ma, X. et al., Using adversarial networks to extend brain computer interface decoding accuracy over time, eLife 12, e84296, 2023 (reference record read). eLife Sciences, Cambridge. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 24Feng, Y. et al., Brain-computer interfaces: the dawn of a new era in disease treatment, Exploration 6(3), 2026 (reference record read: electrode biocompatibility and signal resolution named as challenges). Wiley, Beijing. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 7Lorach, H. et al., Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain-spine interface, Nature 618(7963), 126 to 133, published online 24 May 2023 (reference record read: fully implanted; stable for over one year; one man with chronic tetraplegia). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 8Chetty, N. et al., Signal properties and stability of a chronically implanted endovascular brain computer interface, medRxiv preprint, 25 September 2025 (preprint record read: five participants; 16-channel array; one year; not peer reviewed). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 9US Food and Drug Administration (ed.), Implanted Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) Devices for Patients with Paralysis or Amputation: Non-clinical Testing and Clinical Considerations, final guidance, May 2021 (guidance page read). Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Silver Spring. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 15Precision Neuroscience (ed.), company release on FDA 510(k) clearance of the Layer 7 Cortical Interface, 17 April 2025 (release read; vendor announcement, weak evidence: up to 30 days of implantation; 37 patients tested). Precision Neuroscience, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 16Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and six other bodies (eds.), Implementation Opinions on Promoting the Innovation and Development of the Brain-Computer Interface Industry, MIIT (2025) No. 164, 23 July 2025, English translation by the Center for Security and Emerging Technology, 18 December 2025 (translation page read). Georgetown University, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: ISO (ed.), ISO 14708-3, Implants for surgery: active implantable medical devices, part 3, implantable neurostimulators, cited from memory without figures. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 20Zeff, M., Elon Musk Neuralink closes a USD 650 million Series E (trade report, 2 June 2025; page read; vendor statement as reported: five people implanted; valuation of about USD 9 billion pre-money from an earlier press report). TechCrunch, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
16. 27UNVERIFIED, not opened: Paradromics (ed.), company statements on an FDA investigational device exemption for the Connect-One early feasibility study (November 2025, two initial participants) and a first implant at a university hospital, taken from search-result summaries of vendor announcements; weak evidence. Paradromics, Austin. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
17. 30UNVERIFIED, not opened: trade reports of other company funding rounds in 2025 including a Series D for an endovascular interface company and a seed round for a new interface company, taken from search-result summaries; weak evidence and no figure used. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
18. 13ClinicalTrials.gov (ed.), PRIME: An Early Feasibility Study of a Precise Robotically Implanted Brain-Computer Interface for the Control of External Devices, NCT06429735 (record read: recruiting; start 9 January 2024; estimated enrolment 15; updated January 2026; sponsor-supplied entry). National Library of Medicine, Bethesda. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
19. 31UNVERIFIED, not opened: OECD (ed.), Recommendation of the Council on Responsible Innovation in Neurotechnology, 2019, cited from memory. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
20. 1Willett, F.R. et al., A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis, Nature 620(7976), 1031 to 1036, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: 62 words per minute; 23.8% word error rate on 125,000 words; 9.1% on 50 words). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
21. 2Metzger, S.L. et al., A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control, Nature 620(7976), 1037 to 1046, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: median 78 words per minute; median word error rate 25%). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

5.1Assumptions

Scenario SCN-XT20-NDT-01: what is assumed, and what is held constant.

Baseline

the 2026 reference state in this edition

Drivers

consumer neural devices spread faster than rules, while decoders improve at inferring intent

Analogues

the 2023 Chilean deletion order and the 2024 Colorado law¹⁴¹⁷

Interventions

none modelled: the specification describes the unmitigated case

Run state

narrative specification; quantified run scheduled for 2027

5.2The cascade, step by step

1. 1

   INF → DAT

   decoders reach inner speech in research settings

   2025

2. 2

   DAT → GOV

   states and bodies add neural data to privacy law

   2024

3. 3

   GOV → FIN

   companies face rules that differ by jurisdiction

   2025

4. 4

   FIN → INF

   funding favours clinical devices with clear pathways

   2025

5. 5

   DAT → HLT

   consumer devices that infer mood or intent fall outside medical oversight

   2024

6. 6

   GOV → DAT

   a federal study reports on gaps in existing law

   2025

5.3The scenario as a table of steps

How the shock in scenario SCN-XT20-NDT-01 would travel through Neurotechnology and Human–Machine Interfaces’s coupled systems, step by step, under the assumptions the edition states.

A teaching model of a conditional scenario under the edition’s stated assumptions: not a forecast, not a prediction and not a warning. Sources: Neurotechnology and Human–Machine Interfaces 2026, scenario SCN-XT20-NDT-01 (2026); Neurotechnology and Human–Machine Interfaces 2026, references (NR-CIT-1) (2026).

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 14Colorado General Assembly (ed.), HB24-1058 Protect Privacy of Biological Data (bill page read: signed 17 April 2024; effective 7 August 2024). Colorado General Assembly, Denver. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 17Cornejo-Plaza, M.I., Cippitani, R. and Pasquino, V., Chilean Supreme Court ruling on the protection of brain activity: neurorights, personal data protection, and neurodata, Frontiers in Psychology 15, 27 February 2024 (reference record read). Frontiers Media, Lausanne. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

6.1The other desks’ editions of this subject

Federation: each desk writes its own edition for the subjects in its remit. Until a desk releases, its edition shows its frame and the reading this edition printed for it.

6.2Three lenses

One edition, read by each steward. The lens of this site comes first.

6.3Standards, Academy and steward contributions

How the Nexus Standards drafts, the Risk Academy and the three stewards feed each quarterly edition for neurotechnology. The standards are a preparatory working draft (2026) and are cited as drafts, never as adopted standards.

6.4GCRI reading: the model card

GCRI’s reading of this edition is its model card: what the national model is, what it computes and where it stops. It is printed in full in Annex A, with the methods it belongs to. Annex A, methodology

6.5Global Risks Forum reading: editorial essays

Four signed essays by the Reports editorial team set out the positions this edition takes. They are interpretation, labelled as such; the evidence they draw on is in the findings register.

6.6Global Risks Alliance reading: 2027 neurotechnology readiness pack

The registers that open the 2027 global cycle. At baseline each is initialised from this edition.

Publication dispositions

• Publish
• Hold
• Needs evidence
• Restricted
• Superseded

6.7Nexus Standards reading: standards and regulatory watch

Instruments and published guidance that shape the systems in this edition, by status on the retrieval date. The edition assesses no one’s compliance.

• IN FORCE
• PUBLISHED
• BILL
• PUBLISHED · VOLUNTARY

6.8Risk Academy reading: literature and evidence review, science and assessments

The review behind this edition covers neurotechnology assessments, peer-reviewed science and the institutional reports that bind its findings. Systematic reviews for each agenda item begin in 2027.

Review protocol

Question

What does the published evidence establish about neurotechnology as clinical hardware and personal data and its couplings?

Sources searched

peer-reviewed journals and preprints; guidance, laws and recommendations; policy translations; company and trade reports

Window

releases available at evidence close, 30 September 2026

Selection

sources that bind or contextualise a finding in this edition

Next step

systematic reviews for agenda items 01 to 05 in 2027

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 20Zeff, M., Elon Musk Neuralink closes a USD 650 million Series E (trade report, 2 June 2025; page read; vendor statement as reported: five people implanted; valuation of about USD 9 billion pre-money from an earlier press report). TechCrunch, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 29UNVERIFIED, not opened: market-research reports on the neurotechnology and brain-computer interface markets for 2025 (several firms; figures differ by a large factor depending on definition), taken from search-result summaries; weak evidence and no figure used. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 9US Food and Drug Administration (ed.), Implanted Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) Devices for Patients with Paralysis or Amputation: Non-clinical Testing and Clinical Considerations, final guidance, May 2021 (guidance page read). Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Silver Spring. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 10UNESCO (ed.), Recommendation on the Ethics of Neurotechnology (page read: adopted November 2025 at the 43rd session of the General Conference; mandate entrusted by 194 Member States in 2023; the page states no neural data provisions). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 11United States Senate (ed.), Management of Individuals Neural Data Act of 2025 (MIND Act), S. 2925, 119th Congress, introduced text (text read: FTC study and report within one year of enactment; USD 10 million authorised; referred to committee). US Government Publishing Office, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 14Colorado General Assembly (ed.), HB24-1058 Protect Privacy of Biological Data (bill page read: signed 17 April 2024; effective 7 August 2024). Colorado General Assembly, Denver. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 25UNVERIFIED, not opened: California Senate Bill 1223 (Becker), consumer privacy: sensitive personal information: neural data, signed 27 September 2024, in force 1 January 2025, taken from search-result summaries; the legislature page returned an access error. California Legislature, Sacramento. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 41UNVERIFIED, not opened: Montana and Connecticut state laws on neural data, named in the Senate release [12] and in search-result summaries; texts not opened. State legislatures, Helena and Hartford. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 42UNVERIFIED, not opened: Republic of Chile, Law 21.383 amending Article 19 of the Constitution on scientific and technological development and brain activity, 2021, reported in references 17 and 18; text not opened. Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 31UNVERIFIED, not opened: OECD (ed.), Recommendation of the Council on Responsible Innovation in Neurotechnology, 2019, cited from memory. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 39UNVERIFIED, not opened: European Union, Regulation (EU) 2017/745 on medical devices, Annex XVI on products without an intended medical purpose (includes equipment for brain stimulation), cited from memory. Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: ISO (ed.), ISO 14708-3, Implants for surgery: active implantable medical devices, part 3, implantable neurostimulators, cited from memory without figures. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 12US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation (ed.), release on the introduction of the MIND Act, 24 September 2025 (release read: names Colorado, California, Montana and Connecticut as states with neural data laws). US Senate, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 16Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and six other bodies (eds.), Implementation Opinions on Promoting the Innovation and Development of the Brain-Computer Interface Industry, MIIT (2025) No. 164, 23 July 2025, English translation by the Center for Security and Emerging Technology, 18 December 2025 (translation page read). Georgetown University, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 18Lee, B.H., Even Chile neurorights leave inferred mental data in a gray zone, Stanford Law School Law and Biosciences Blog, 27 April 2026 (blog page read; commentary, not a legal text). Stanford University, Stanford. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
16. 43UNVERIFIED, not opened: European Union, Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 (Artificial Intelligence Act), Article 5 on prohibited practices including emotion recognition in workplaces and education, cited from memory. Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
17. 1Willett, F.R. et al., A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis, Nature 620(7976), 1031 to 1036, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: 62 words per minute; 23.8% word error rate on 125,000 words; 9.1% on 50 words). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
18. 2Metzger, S.L. et al., A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control, Nature 620(7976), 1037 to 1046, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: median 78 words per minute; median word error rate 25%). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
19. 3Card, N.S. et al., An accurate and rapidly calibrating speech neuroprosthesis, medRxiv preprint, 26 December 2023 (preprint record read: 99.6% on 50 words on day 1; 90.2% on 125,000 words on day 2; 97.5% beyond eight months; 256 electrodes; the record notes the New England Journal of Medicine version 391(7), 609 to 618, August 2024). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
20. 4Wairagkar, M. et al., An instantaneous voice synthesis neuroprosthesis, bioRxiv preprint, 19 August 2024 (preprint record read: 256 microelectrodes, one participant with ALS; no quantitative scores in the abstract; the record notes Nature 644(8075), 145 to 152, 2025). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
21. 5Kunz, E.M. et al., Inner speech in motor cortex and implications for speech neuroprostheses, Cell 188(17), 4658 to 4673, published online 14 August 2025 (reference record read: four participants). Cell Press, Cambridge MA. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
22. 6Willett, F.R., Avansino, D.T., Hochberg, L.R., Henderson, J.M. and Shenoy, K.V., High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting, Nature 593(7858), 249 to 254, published online 12 May 2021 (reference record read: 90 characters per minute; 94.1% raw online accuracy). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
23. 7Lorach, H. et al., Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain-spine interface, Nature 618(7963), 126 to 133, published online 24 May 2023 (reference record read: fully implanted; stable for over one year; one man with chronic tetraplegia). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
24. 8Chetty, N. et al., Signal properties and stability of a chronically implanted endovascular brain computer interface, medRxiv preprint, 25 September 2025 (preprint record read: five participants; 16-channel array; one year; not peer reviewed). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
25. 22Ma, X. et al., Using adversarial networks to extend brain computer interface decoding accuracy over time, eLife 12, e84296, 2023 (reference record read). eLife Sciences, Cambridge. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
26. 23Wellman, S.M. et al., A materials roadmap to functional neural interface design, Advanced Functional Materials 28(12), 2018 (reference record read; no figures in the abstract). Wiley, Weinheim. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
27. 24Feng, Y. et al., Brain-computer interfaces: the dawn of a new era in disease treatment, Exploration 6(3), 2026 (reference record read: electrode biocompatibility and signal resolution named as challenges). Wiley, Beijing. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
28. 21Bublitz, C. et al., A moratorium on implantable non-medical neurotech until effects on the mind are properly understood, Neuroethics 18(3), article 46, 2025 (reference record read: proposes a mental impact assessment, a moratorium and a ban for children). Springer, Dordrecht. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
29. 19Szoszkiewicz, L. and Yuste, R., Mental privacy: navigating risks, rights and regulation, EMBO Reports 26(14), 3469 to 3473, published online 25 June 2025 (reference record read; no abstract beyond the subtitle). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
30. 36UNVERIFIED, not opened: Hochberg, L.R. et al., Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia, Nature 442, 164 to 171, 2006, cited from memory. Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2006. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
31. 37UNVERIFIED, not opened: Collinger, J.L. et al., High-performance neuroprosthetic control by an individual with tetraplegia, The Lancet 381, 557 to 564, 2013, cited from memory. Elsevier, London. Observation year 2013. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
32. 38UNVERIFIED, not opened: Moses, D.A. et al., Neuroprosthesis for decoding speech in a paralyzed person with anarthria, New England Journal of Medicine 385, 217 to 227, 2021, cited from memory. Massachusetts Medical Society, Waltham. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
33. 34UNVERIFIED, not opened: Yuste, R. et al., Four ethical priorities for neurotechnologies and AI, Nature 551, 159 to 163, 2017, cited from memory. Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
34. 35UNVERIFIED, not opened: Ienca, M. and Andorno, R., Towards new human rights in the age of neuroscience and neurotechnology, Life Sciences, Society and Policy 13, 5, 2017, cited from memory. Springer, Berlin. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
35. 15Precision Neuroscience (ed.), company release on FDA 510(k) clearance of the Layer 7 Cortical Interface, 17 April 2025 (release read; vendor announcement, weak evidence: up to 30 days of implantation; 37 patients tested). Precision Neuroscience, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
36. 30UNVERIFIED, not opened: trade reports of other company funding rounds in 2025 including a Series D for an endovascular interface company and a seed round for a new interface company, taken from search-result summaries; weak evidence and no figure used. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
37. 33UNVERIFIED, not opened: Neurorights Foundation (ed.), report on privacy practices of consumer neurotechnology companies, 2024, cited from memory without figures; the foundation page returned not found. Neurorights Foundation, New York. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
38. 26UNVERIFIED, not opened: report of January 2026 that Neuralink was enrolling 21 participants worldwide, taken from a search-result summary of a secondhand news item citing people familiar with the matter; weak evidence. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

7.1Questions for the operational series

1. N-01

   Where does neural data from consumer devices sit outside medical-device and privacy rules, and which laws reach inferred data?

   INI-XT20-NDT-01 · neural data map; first output: jurisdiction overlay.

2. N-02

   What power and heat budgets do implanted interfaces work within, and how do they limit channel counts?

   INI-XT20-PWR-02 · power and heat footprint; first output: budget table by platform.

3. N-03

   Which materials and fabrication steps are single points of failure for electrodes and implants?

   INI-XT20-MAT-03 · materials and fabrication; first output: dependence map.

4. N-04

   How can long-term device failure and signal loss be reported on a common basis?

   INI-XT20-DUR-04 · durability on a common basis; first output: failure table.

5. N-05

   How can trial outcomes and company claims be compared on a common basis?

   INI-XT20-CLM-05 · claims on a common basis; first output: claims table.

6. N-06

   Which national rules cover neural data, and how do they differ?

   To be admitted in 2027; first output: rule overlay.

7. N-07

   What clinical workforce exists for implantation, programming and follow-up?

   To be admitted in 2027; first output: scoping note.

8. N-08

   Which readiness capabilities have been tested in real cases, and which are only planned?

   Readiness capability register; first output: rung evidence for 15 functions.

7.2Portfolio proposed for the Q1 2027 alignment

Five initiatives and one Universe mission candidate are proposed for the 2027 neurotechnology portfolio. They are programme objects: no partner, funder or member is attached to them in this edition.

7.3The pathway

The neurotechnology edition reads national readiness chapters, the coupled sector reports on health and cyber systems, and the global edition through one governed evidence graph. At baseline the federation is designed; the global health and cyber editions are drafted. This page states what exists today and what comes next.

1. 01

   National readiness chapters

   neurotechnology and neural data readiness in each national edition

   IN PREPARATION · national baselines

2. 02

   Sector couplings

   GS-04 health · GS-13 cyber and digital · XT-10 cryptography

   GS-04 DRAFTED · sector baselines

3. 03

   Technology system model

   devices, power, materials, workforce, governance

   v0 SPECIFIED · v1 with federation evidence

4. 04

   Strategic links

   SR-02 lifeline systems · SR-13 strategic technology

   PLANNED · strategic baselines

5. 05

   Universe

   annual proving environment

   CANDIDATE MISSION · mandate in 2027

6. 06

   XT-20 report

   this series

   BASELINE DRAFT · 2027 annual edition

7. 07

   Evidence and correction

   one graph, many projections

   OPEN · first correction cycle in 2027

7.4Universe 2027: evidence pack for the neurotechnology candidate mission

1. 01

   Mandate

2. 02

   Core Build · 1 month

3. 03

   Action · 1 week

4. 04

   Evidence seal

5. 05

   Portfolio correction

6. 06

   Next mandate

Mission

ID

MSN-XT20-2027-01 · Consumer neural data Universe mission

Role spine

Leadership sponsor · Institutional anchor · Mission lead: drawn from national pathways

Receiving actors

to be identified with the mandate

7.5Handoffs and routing

Where the baseline’s findings go next. A handoff routes a finding for awareness, review or work; it transfers no authority.

7.6Feeds and signal register

Escalation routes

• none · keep monitoring
• research question
• project
• risk object
• annual publication
• signal report

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 5Kunz, E.M. et al., Inner speech in motor cortex and implications for speech neuroprostheses, Cell 188(17), 4658 to 4673, published online 14 August 2025 (reference record read: four participants). Cell Press, Cambridge MA. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 10UNESCO (ed.), Recommendation on the Ethics of Neurotechnology (page read: adopted November 2025 at the 43rd session of the General Conference; mandate entrusted by 194 Member States in 2023; the page states no neural data provisions). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 15Precision Neuroscience (ed.), company release on FDA 510(k) clearance of the Layer 7 Cortical Interface, 17 April 2025 (release read; vendor announcement, weak evidence: up to 30 days of implantation; 37 patients tested). Precision Neuroscience, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 20Zeff, M., Elon Musk Neuralink closes a USD 650 million Series E (trade report, 2 June 2025; page read; vendor statement as reported: five people implanted; valuation of about USD 9 billion pre-money from an earlier press report). TechCrunch, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

8.1Interface hardware and decoding platforms

Interfaces record from implanted electrodes, from the brain surface or from inside a blood vessel, and decode with trained models. Evidence is strongest where peer review exists, and weakest where claims rest on company statements.

Related editions

• GLB Global Systems
• GS-04 Health and One Health
• GS-13 Cyber and Digital Systems
• XT-10 Cybersecurity and Advanced Cryptography
• XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
• XT-01 Artificial Intelligence and Agentic Systems

8.2Power, heat and data of implants

An implant must be powered, kept cool enough for tissue and moved off the body as data. No power or heat budget was bound in this edition.

Related editions

• GLB Global Systems
• GS-04 Health and One Health
• GS-13 Cyber and Digital Systems
• XT-10 Cybersecurity and Advanced Cryptography
• XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
• XT-01 Artificial Intelligence and Agentic Systems

8.3Materials, durability and fabrication

Electrodes sit in tissue for years. Signal loss, drift and biocompatibility are open problems in the literature, and fabrication dependence is not bound here.

Related editions

• GLB Global Systems
• GS-04 Health and One Health
• GS-13 Cyber and Digital Systems
• XT-10 Cybersecurity and Advanced Cryptography
• XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
• XT-01 Artificial Intelligence and Agentic Systems

8.4Economy, investment and workforce

Company rounds are large and rest on company statements. Market size depends on definition, and workforce numbers are not bound.

Related editions

• GLB Global Systems
• GS-04 Health and One Health
• GS-13 Cyber and Digital Systems
• XT-10 Cybersecurity and Advanced Cryptography
• XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
• XT-01 Artificial Intelligence and Agentic Systems

8.5Neural data, security and governance watch

The nearest effect of neurotechnology on other systems is on privacy law. Rules differ by place, and several apply only to data used for identification.

Related editions

• GLB Global Systems
• GS-04 Health and One Health
• GS-13 Cyber and Digital Systems
• XT-10 Cybersecurity and Advanced Cryptography
• XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
• XT-01 Artificial Intelligence and Agentic Systems

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 3Card, N.S. et al., An accurate and rapidly calibrating speech neuroprosthesis, medRxiv preprint, 26 December 2023 (preprint record read: 99.6% on 50 words on day 1; 90.2% on 125,000 words on day 2; 97.5% beyond eight months; 256 electrodes; the record notes the New England Journal of Medicine version 391(7), 609 to 618, August 2024). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 8Chetty, N. et al., Signal properties and stability of a chronically implanted endovascular brain computer interface, medRxiv preprint, 25 September 2025 (preprint record read: five participants; 16-channel array; one year; not peer reviewed). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 7Lorach, H. et al., Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain-spine interface, Nature 618(7963), 126 to 133, published online 24 May 2023 (reference record read: fully implanted; stable for over one year; one man with chronic tetraplegia). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 1Willett, F.R. et al., A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis, Nature 620(7976), 1031 to 1036, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: 62 words per minute; 23.8% word error rate on 125,000 words; 9.1% on 50 words). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 2Metzger, S.L. et al., A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control, Nature 620(7976), 1037 to 1046, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: median 78 words per minute; median word error rate 25%). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 4Wairagkar, M. et al., An instantaneous voice synthesis neuroprosthesis, bioRxiv preprint, 19 August 2024 (preprint record read: 256 microelectrodes, one participant with ALS; no quantitative scores in the abstract; the record notes Nature 644(8075), 145 to 152, 2025). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 6Willett, F.R., Avansino, D.T., Hochberg, L.R., Henderson, J.M. and Shenoy, K.V., High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting, Nature 593(7858), 249 to 254, published online 12 May 2021 (reference record read: 90 characters per minute; 94.1% raw online accuracy). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 15Precision Neuroscience (ed.), company release on FDA 510(k) clearance of the Layer 7 Cortical Interface, 17 April 2025 (release read; vendor announcement, weak evidence: up to 30 days of implantation; 37 patients tested). Precision Neuroscience, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 27UNVERIFIED, not opened: Paradromics (ed.), company statements on an FDA investigational device exemption for the Connect-One early feasibility study (November 2025, two initial participants) and a first implant at a university hospital, taken from search-result summaries of vendor announcements; weak evidence. Paradromics, Austin. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 28UNVERIFIED, not opened: Medtronic (ed.), FDA approval of the BrainSense adaptive deep brain stimulation system for Parkinson disease, February 2025, taken from search-result summaries of trade coverage and a company announcement; weak evidence. Medtronic, Dublin. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 32UNVERIFIED, not opened: Meta Reality Labs research team, paper on a wrist-worn electromyography interface for generic human-computer interaction, Nature 2025, cited from memory; the Nature page redirected to an access check. Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 44UNVERIFIED, not opened: Neuralink company announcement of an FDA breakthrough device designation for a visual prosthesis, 2024, cited from memory; vendor announcement, weak evidence. Neuralink, Fremont. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 11United States Senate (ed.), Management of Individuals Neural Data Act of 2025 (MIND Act), S. 2925, 119th Congress, introduced text (text read: FTC study and report within one year of enactment; USD 10 million authorised; referred to committee). US Government Publishing Office, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 9US Food and Drug Administration (ed.), Implanted Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) Devices for Patients with Paralysis or Amputation: Non-clinical Testing and Clinical Considerations, final guidance, May 2021 (guidance page read). Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Silver Spring. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: ISO (ed.), ISO 14708-3, Implants for surgery: active implantable medical devices, part 3, implantable neurostimulators, cited from memory without figures. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
16. 23Wellman, S.M. et al., A materials roadmap to functional neural interface design, Advanced Functional Materials 28(12), 2018 (reference record read; no figures in the abstract). Wiley, Weinheim. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
17. 24Feng, Y. et al., Brain-computer interfaces: the dawn of a new era in disease treatment, Exploration 6(3), 2026 (reference record read: electrode biocompatibility and signal resolution named as challenges). Wiley, Beijing. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
18. 22Ma, X. et al., Using adversarial networks to extend brain computer interface decoding accuracy over time, eLife 12, e84296, 2023 (reference record read). eLife Sciences, Cambridge. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
19. 16Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and six other bodies (eds.), Implementation Opinions on Promoting the Innovation and Development of the Brain-Computer Interface Industry, MIIT (2025) No. 164, 23 July 2025, English translation by the Center for Security and Emerging Technology, 18 December 2025 (translation page read). Georgetown University, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
20. 20Zeff, M., Elon Musk Neuralink closes a USD 650 million Series E (trade report, 2 June 2025; page read; vendor statement as reported: five people implanted; valuation of about USD 9 billion pre-money from an earlier press report). TechCrunch, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
21. 13ClinicalTrials.gov (ed.), PRIME: An Early Feasibility Study of a Precise Robotically Implanted Brain-Computer Interface for the Control of External Devices, NCT06429735 (record read: recruiting; start 9 January 2024; estimated enrolment 15; updated January 2026; sponsor-supplied entry). National Library of Medicine, Bethesda. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
22. 30UNVERIFIED, not opened: trade reports of other company funding rounds in 2025 including a Series D for an endovascular interface company and a seed round for a new interface company, taken from search-result summaries; weak evidence and no figure used. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
23. 26UNVERIFIED, not opened: report of January 2026 that Neuralink was enrolling 21 participants worldwide, taken from a search-result summary of a secondhand news item citing people familiar with the matter; weak evidence. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
24. 29UNVERIFIED, not opened: market-research reports on the neurotechnology and brain-computer interface markets for 2025 (several firms; figures differ by a large factor depending on definition), taken from search-result summaries; weak evidence and no figure used. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
25. 12US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation (ed.), release on the introduction of the MIND Act, 24 September 2025 (release read: names Colorado, California, Montana and Connecticut as states with neural data laws). US Senate, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
26. 10UNESCO (ed.), Recommendation on the Ethics of Neurotechnology (page read: adopted November 2025 at the 43rd session of the General Conference; mandate entrusted by 194 Member States in 2023; the page states no neural data provisions). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
27. 17Cornejo-Plaza, M.I., Cippitani, R. and Pasquino, V., Chilean Supreme Court ruling on the protection of brain activity: neurorights, personal data protection, and neurodata, Frontiers in Psychology 15, 27 February 2024 (reference record read). Frontiers Media, Lausanne. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
28. 18Lee, B.H., Even Chile neurorights leave inferred mental data in a gray zone, Stanford Law School Law and Biosciences Blog, 27 April 2026 (blog page read; commentary, not a legal text). Stanford University, Stanford. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
29. 31UNVERIFIED, not opened: OECD (ed.), Recommendation of the Council on Responsible Innovation in Neurotechnology, 2019, cited from memory. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
30. 14Colorado General Assembly (ed.), HB24-1058 Protect Privacy of Biological Data (bill page read: signed 17 April 2024; effective 7 August 2024). Colorado General Assembly, Denver. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
31. 25UNVERIFIED, not opened: California Senate Bill 1223 (Becker), consumer privacy: sensitive personal information: neural data, signed 27 September 2024, in force 1 January 2025, taken from search-result summaries; the legislature page returned an access error. California Legislature, Sacramento. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
32. 41UNVERIFIED, not opened: Montana and Connecticut state laws on neural data, named in the Senate release [12] and in search-result summaries; texts not opened. State legislatures, Helena and Hartford. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
33. 42UNVERIFIED, not opened: Republic of Chile, Law 21.383 amending Article 19 of the Constitution on scientific and technological development and brain activity, 2021, reported in references 17 and 18; text not opened. Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
34. 39UNVERIFIED, not opened: European Union, Regulation (EU) 2017/745 on medical devices, Annex XVI on products without an intended medical purpose (includes equipment for brain stimulation), cited from memory. Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
35. 43UNVERIFIED, not opened: European Union, Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 (Artificial Intelligence Act), Article 5 on prohibited practices including emotion recognition in workplaces and education, cited from memory. Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
36. 19Szoszkiewicz, L. and Yuste, R., Mental privacy: navigating risks, rights and regulation, EMBO Reports 26(14), 3469 to 3473, published online 25 June 2025 (reference record read; no abstract beyond the subtitle). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
37. 21Bublitz, C. et al., A moratorium on implantable non-medical neurotech until effects on the mind are properly understood, Neuroethics 18(3), article 46, 2025 (reference record read: proposes a mental impact assessment, a moratorium and a ban for children). Springer, Dordrecht. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
38. 33UNVERIFIED, not opened: Neurorights Foundation (ed.), report on privacy practices of consumer neurotechnology companies, 2024, cited from memory without figures; the foundation page returned not found. Neurorights Foundation, New York. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
39. 34UNVERIFIED, not opened: Yuste, R. et al., Four ethical priorities for neurotechnologies and AI, Nature 551, 159 to 163, 2017, cited from memory. Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
40. 35UNVERIFIED, not opened: Ienca, M. and Andorno, R., Towards new human rights in the age of neuroscience and neurotechnology, Life Sciences, Society and Policy 13, 5, 2017, cited from memory. Springer, Berlin. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

A.1Methods

The global baseline uses published values and four simple derivations. Each is shown in full so that any reader can reproduce it.

A.2Model card, Neurotechnology System Model v0

Model ID

MDL-XT20-NEURO · v0.1

Purpose

represent neurotechnology as clinical hardware and a source of neural data coupled to health, materials, finance, workforce and privacy

Family

graph-based system of systems

Inputs

the cited sources of this edition; no proprietary data

Method

expert-specified coupling strengths (STRONG · MODERATE · WEAK) from assessments and analogue events

Validation

none yet, first validation against federation evidence in 2027

Uncertainty

qualitative; strengths are hypotheses, not measurements

Domain of validity

global scale; not for asset-, site- or country-level use

Reproducibility

strength table and sources published in this edition

A.3The baseline evidence cut

Every Nexus edition is published from a frozen evidence cut. The global baseline cut is documentary: it pins the exact edition of every source cited. Federation cuts begin with the first national Foundry cuts in 2027.

Cut ID

DC-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-B0

Type

baseline documentary cut

Resolution policy

pinned · as of 30 September 2026

Sources pinned

44 cited sources, each at the edition and access date in the references

Model runs

none at baseline, analytical values are stated with their method

Digest

computed at freeze and recorded in the publication record

Supersedes

nothing, first cut of the series

Superseded by

the 2027 neurotechnology annual cut

Lineage

1. 01

   source edition

2. 02

   pinned citation

3. 03

   finding

4. 04

   page

5. 05

   publication record

A.4Evidence age and coverage

A 2026 global edition rests on evidence observed in many different years. This page shows each time base, so that no single year label hides older evidence.

A.5Evidence cards, two anchor sources

Evidence cards to follow in 2027

• Willett et al.¹: replication in more participants
• Chetty et al.⁸: peer-reviewed version
• MIND Act¹¹: committee action
• Registry entry¹³: updated enrolment

A.6Publication acceptance record

Editorial self-check at evidence close. Every applicable item carries a disposition; the remaining items are review, approval and deposit.

A.7Status words

A.8How the edition is made, released and corrected

Every edition is built from a sealed evidence cut, reviewed under three keys, signed and deposited before any site shows it as published; corrections go to Nexus Standards as change proposals and feed the next cut.

A teaching model of the process, not a forecast and not a record of any run; dates and counts on this page come from the programme record. Sources: Reports governance at GCRI Canada (2026); Zenodo, repository of record for Reports deposits (2026).

Lifecycle, one state at a time: Draft, Computed, Evidence bound, Reviewed, Approved for release, Published, Corrected, Superseded. This edition is a draft.

A.9Glossary and abbreviations

A.10Technical annex

A.1 · indicator definition: word error rate

Construct

share of decoded words that differ from the words the participant intended to say

Unit

percent

Method

attempted speech decoded by a trained model from implanted electrode signals, scored against the intended sentences

Source

Nature 620 (2023)¹²

Uncertainty

as reported by the authors; not restated here

Known limits

one participant per study; sentences and vocabulary set by the researchers

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 2Metzger, S.L. et al., A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control, Nature 620(7976), 1037 to 1046, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: median 78 words per minute; median word error rate 25%). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 1Willett, F.R. et al., A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis, Nature 620(7976), 1031 to 1036, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: 62 words per minute; 23.8% word error rate on 125,000 words; 9.1% on 50 words). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 3Card, N.S. et al., An accurate and rapidly calibrating speech neuroprosthesis, medRxiv preprint, 26 December 2023 (preprint record read: 99.6% on 50 words on day 1; 90.2% on 125,000 words on day 2; 97.5% beyond eight months; 256 electrodes; the record notes the New England Journal of Medicine version 391(7), 609 to 618, August 2024). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 20Zeff, M., Elon Musk Neuralink closes a USD 650 million Series E (trade report, 2 June 2025; page read; vendor statement as reported: five people implanted; valuation of about USD 9 billion pre-money from an earlier press report). TechCrunch, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 29UNVERIFIED, not opened: market-research reports on the neurotechnology and brain-computer interface markets for 2025 (several firms; figures differ by a large factor depending on definition), taken from search-result summaries; weak evidence and no figure used. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 7Lorach, H. et al., Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain-spine interface, Nature 618(7963), 126 to 133, published online 24 May 2023 (reference record read: fully implanted; stable for over one year; one man with chronic tetraplegia). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 8Chetty, N. et al., Signal properties and stability of a chronically implanted endovascular brain computer interface, medRxiv preprint, 25 September 2025 (preprint record read: five participants; 16-channel array; one year; not peer reviewed). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 13ClinicalTrials.gov (ed.), PRIME: An Early Feasibility Study of a Precise Robotically Implanted Brain-Computer Interface for the Control of External Devices, NCT06429735 (record read: recruiting; start 9 January 2024; estimated enrolment 15; updated January 2026; sponsor-supplied entry). National Library of Medicine, Bethesda. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 26UNVERIFIED, not opened: report of January 2026 that Neuralink was enrolling 21 participants worldwide, taken from a search-result summary of a secondhand news item citing people familiar with the matter; weak evidence. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 15Precision Neuroscience (ed.), company release on FDA 510(k) clearance of the Layer 7 Cortical Interface, 17 April 2025 (release read; vendor announcement, weak evidence: up to 30 days of implantation; 37 patients tested). Precision Neuroscience, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 27UNVERIFIED, not opened: Paradromics (ed.), company statements on an FDA investigational device exemption for the Connect-One early feasibility study (November 2025, two initial participants) and a first implant at a university hospital, taken from search-result summaries of vendor announcements; weak evidence. Paradromics, Austin. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 33UNVERIFIED, not opened: Neurorights Foundation (ed.), report on privacy practices of consumer neurotechnology companies, 2024, cited from memory without figures; the foundation page returned not found. Neurorights Foundation, New York. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 25UNVERIFIED, not opened: California Senate Bill 1223 (Becker), consumer privacy: sensitive personal information: neural data, signed 27 September 2024, in force 1 January 2025, taken from search-result summaries; the legislature page returned an access error. California Legislature, Sacramento. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 41UNVERIFIED, not opened: Montana and Connecticut state laws on neural data, named in the Senate release [12] and in search-result summaries; texts not opened. State legislatures, Helena and Hartford. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 23Wellman, S.M. et al., A materials roadmap to functional neural interface design, Advanced Functional Materials 28(12), 2018 (reference record read; no figures in the abstract). Wiley, Weinheim. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
16. 32UNVERIFIED, not opened: Meta Reality Labs research team, paper on a wrist-worn electromyography interface for generic human-computer interaction, Nature 2025, cited from memory; the Nature page redirected to an access check. Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
17. 11United States Senate (ed.), Management of Individuals Neural Data Act of 2025 (MIND Act), S. 2925, 119th Congress, introduced text (text read: FTC study and report within one year of enactment; USD 10 million authorised; referred to committee). US Government Publishing Office, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

B.1The indicator set

B.2Global source register

The governed source set behind this edition. Each source keeps its authority, coverage, cadence and role; categories describe origin, not truth.

Domains bound by the register

• INF
• DAT
• HLT
• FIN
• GOV
• BIO
• TRD
• MIN
• ENE
• AIC

B.3Regional reading, neurotechnology across ten clusters

Regional plates follow with the regional editions. This page gives the regional reading of neurotechnology and neural data in table form and ranks no region.

B.4Cluster card: speech neuroprosthesis research network

• speech
• intracortical arrays
• single participants
• inner speech

Systems in view

implanted arrays, decoders, clinical teams, participants with paralysis

Defining events

two Nature papers of August 2023¹²

Couplings

INF → HLT clinical benefit; INF → DAT inner speech

Capability evidence

long-term accuracy and inner speech safeguards reported³⁵

Gaps

participants beyond one or four; home use; durability

Agenda items

N-04 · N-05

B.5How countries appear in the neurotechnology edition

Countries enter the neurotechnology edition through the readiness chapters of their own national editions, on one card grammar. They are read against peer distributions and thresholds, never ranked.

Editions in the 2026 Baseline programme

How to read a country card

• Each system is shown against the distribution of its peers, with thresholds where they exist
• Couplings and risk objects come from the country’s own national edition
• Capability rungs record evidence, not a judgement of institutions
• Evidence age is printed, so older national data are visible as such

B.6Licences

B.7Formats and provenance

Provenance

Edition pack

The edition’s content pack (JSON), from which the print and web editions are built

Evidence cut

DC-XTECH-NEURO-GLOBAL-2026-B0, closed 30 September 2026

Reproducibility

sourced values cited; analytical values reproducible from stated parameters

Self-check

14 of 23 at evidence close; a fail on any item blocks release

Review

five passes scheduled before release (in Annex C)

Publisher of record

GCRI for the Nexus Consortium

Corrections

Registry correction pathway; upheld corrections are published as notices with a new version

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 1Willett, F.R. et al., A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis, Nature 620(7976), 1031 to 1036, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: 62 words per minute; 23.8% word error rate on 125,000 words; 9.1% on 50 words). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
2. 2Metzger, S.L. et al., A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control, Nature 620(7976), 1037 to 1046, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: median 78 words per minute; median word error rate 25%). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
3. 3Card, N.S. et al., An accurate and rapidly calibrating speech neuroprosthesis, medRxiv preprint, 26 December 2023 (preprint record read: 99.6% on 50 words on day 1; 90.2% on 125,000 words on day 2; 97.5% beyond eight months; 256 electrodes; the record notes the New England Journal of Medicine version 391(7), 609 to 618, August 2024). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
4. 6Willett, F.R., Avansino, D.T., Hochberg, L.R., Henderson, J.M. and Shenoy, K.V., High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting, Nature 593(7858), 249 to 254, published online 12 May 2021 (reference record read: 90 characters per minute; 94.1% raw online accuracy). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
5. 5Kunz, E.M. et al., Inner speech in motor cortex and implications for speech neuroprostheses, Cell 188(17), 4658 to 4673, published online 14 August 2025 (reference record read: four participants). Cell Press, Cambridge MA. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
6. 8Chetty, N. et al., Signal properties and stability of a chronically implanted endovascular brain computer interface, medRxiv preprint, 25 September 2025 (preprint record read: five participants; 16-channel array; one year; not peer reviewed). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
7. 13ClinicalTrials.gov (ed.), PRIME: An Early Feasibility Study of a Precise Robotically Implanted Brain-Computer Interface for the Control of External Devices, NCT06429735 (record read: recruiting; start 9 January 2024; estimated enrolment 15; updated January 2026; sponsor-supplied entry). National Library of Medicine, Bethesda. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
8. 20Zeff, M., Elon Musk Neuralink closes a USD 650 million Series E (trade report, 2 June 2025; page read; vendor statement as reported: five people implanted; valuation of about USD 9 billion pre-money from an earlier press report). TechCrunch, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
9. 11United States Senate (ed.), Management of Individuals Neural Data Act of 2025 (MIND Act), S. 2925, 119th Congress, introduced text (text read: FTC study and report within one year of enactment; USD 10 million authorised; referred to committee). US Government Publishing Office, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
10. 15Precision Neuroscience (ed.), company release on FDA 510(k) clearance of the Layer 7 Cortical Interface, 17 April 2025 (release read; vendor announcement, weak evidence: up to 30 days of implantation; 37 patients tested). Precision Neuroscience, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
11. 7Lorach, H. et al., Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain-spine interface, Nature 618(7963), 126 to 133, published online 24 May 2023 (reference record read: fully implanted; stable for over one year; one man with chronic tetraplegia). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
12. 9US Food and Drug Administration (ed.), Implanted Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) Devices for Patients with Paralysis or Amputation: Non-clinical Testing and Clinical Considerations, final guidance, May 2021 (guidance page read). Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Silver Spring. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
13. 10UNESCO (ed.), Recommendation on the Ethics of Neurotechnology (page read: adopted November 2025 at the 43rd session of the General Conference; mandate entrusted by 194 Member States in 2023; the page states no neural data provisions). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
14. 16Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and six other bodies (eds.), Implementation Opinions on Promoting the Innovation and Development of the Brain-Computer Interface Industry, MIIT (2025) No. 164, 23 July 2025, English translation by the Center for Security and Emerging Technology, 18 December 2025 (translation page read). Georgetown University, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
15. 14Colorado General Assembly (ed.), HB24-1058 Protect Privacy of Biological Data (bill page read: signed 17 April 2024; effective 7 August 2024). Colorado General Assembly, Denver. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
16. 17Cornejo-Plaza, M.I., Cippitani, R. and Pasquino, V., Chilean Supreme Court ruling on the protection of brain activity: neurorights, personal data protection, and neurodata, Frontiers in Psychology 15, 27 February 2024 (reference record read). Frontiers Media, Lausanne. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
17. 18Lee, B.H., Even Chile neurorights leave inferred mental data in a gray zone, Stanford Law School Law and Biosciences Blog, 27 April 2026 (blog page read; commentary, not a legal text). Stanford University, Stanford. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back

C.144 sources

NR-CIT-1, editor first. A DOI is linked where the source has one; Nexus records carry a UNI once the catalogue allocates it (NS-1).

1. 1Willett, F.R. et al., A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis, Nature 620(7976), 1031 to 1036, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: 62 words per minute; 23.8% word error rate on 125,000 words; 9.1% on 50 words). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
2. 2Metzger, S.L. et al., A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control, Nature 620(7976), 1037 to 1046, published online 23 August 2023 (reference record read: median 78 words per minute; median word error rate 25%). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
3. 3Card, N.S. et al., An accurate and rapidly calibrating speech neuroprosthesis, medRxiv preprint, 26 December 2023 (preprint record read: 99.6% on 50 words on day 1; 90.2% on 125,000 words on day 2; 97.5% beyond eight months; 256 electrodes; the record notes the New England Journal of Medicine version 391(7), 609 to 618, August 2024). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 6, chapter 8
4. 4Wairagkar, M. et al., An instantaneous voice synthesis neuroprosthesis, bioRxiv preprint, 19 August 2024 (preprint record read: 256 microelectrodes, one participant with ALS; no quantitative scores in the abstract; the record notes Nature 644(8075), 145 to 152, 2025). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
5. 5Kunz, E.M. et al., Inner speech in motor cortex and implications for speech neuroprostheses, Cell 188(17), 4658 to 4673, published online 14 August 2025 (reference record read: four participants). Cell Press, Cambridge MA. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 7
6. 6Willett, F.R., Avansino, D.T., Hochberg, L.R., Henderson, J.M. and Shenoy, K.V., High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting, Nature 593(7858), 249 to 254, published online 12 May 2021 (reference record read: 90 characters per minute; 94.1% raw online accuracy). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
7. 7Lorach, H. et al., Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain-spine interface, Nature 618(7963), 126 to 133, published online 24 May 2023 (reference record read: fully implanted; stable for over one year; one man with chronic tetraplegia). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
8. 8Chetty, N. et al., Signal properties and stability of a chronically implanted endovascular brain computer interface, medRxiv preprint, 25 September 2025 (preprint record read: five participants; 16-channel array; one year; not peer reviewed). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
9. 9US Food and Drug Administration (ed.), Implanted Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) Devices for Patients with Paralysis or Amputation: Non-clinical Testing and Clinical Considerations, final guidance, May 2021 (guidance page read). Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Silver Spring. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
10. 10UNESCO (ed.), Recommendation on the Ethics of Neurotechnology (page read: adopted November 2025 at the 43rd session of the General Conference; mandate entrusted by 194 Member States in 2023; the page states no neural data provisions). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 7, chapter 8
11. 11United States Senate (ed.), Management of Individuals Neural Data Act of 2025 (MIND Act), S. 2925, 119th Congress, introduced text (text read: FTC study and report within one year of enactment; USD 10 million authorised; referred to committee). US Government Publishing Office, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
12. 12US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation (ed.), release on the introduction of the MIND Act, 24 September 2025 (release read: names Colorado, California, Montana and Connecticut as states with neural data laws). US Senate, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
13. 13ClinicalTrials.gov (ed.), PRIME: An Early Feasibility Study of a Precise Robotically Implanted Brain-Computer Interface for the Control of External Devices, NCT06429735 (record read: recruiting; start 9 January 2024; estimated enrolment 15; updated January 2026; sponsor-supplied entry). National Library of Medicine, Bethesda. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 8
14. 14Colorado General Assembly (ed.), HB24-1058 Protect Privacy of Biological Data (bill page read: signed 17 April 2024; effective 7 August 2024). Colorado General Assembly, Denver. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 5, chapter 6, chapter 8
15. 15Precision Neuroscience (ed.), company release on FDA 510(k) clearance of the Layer 7 Cortical Interface, 17 April 2025 (release read; vendor announcement, weak evidence: up to 30 days of implantation; 37 patients tested). Precision Neuroscience, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 7, chapter 8
16. 16Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and six other bodies (eds.), Implementation Opinions on Promoting the Innovation and Development of the Brain-Computer Interface Industry, MIIT (2025) No. 164, 23 July 2025, English translation by the Center for Security and Emerging Technology, 18 December 2025 (translation page read). Georgetown University, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
17. 17Cornejo-Plaza, M.I., Cippitani, R. and Pasquino, V., Chilean Supreme Court ruling on the protection of brain activity: neurorights, personal data protection, and neurodata, Frontiers in Psychology 15, 27 February 2024 (reference record read). Frontiers Media, Lausanne. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 5, chapter 8
18. 18Lee, B.H., Even Chile neurorights leave inferred mental data in a gray zone, Stanford Law School Law and Biosciences Blog, 27 April 2026 (blog page read; commentary, not a legal text). Stanford University, Stanford. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 2, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
19. 19Szoszkiewicz, L. and Yuste, R., Mental privacy: navigating risks, rights and regulation, EMBO Reports 26(14), 3469 to 3473, published online 25 June 2025 (reference record read; no abstract beyond the subtitle). Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
20. 20Zeff, M., Elon Musk Neuralink closes a USD 650 million Series E (trade report, 2 June 2025; page read; vendor statement as reported: five people implanted; valuation of about USD 9 billion pre-money from an earlier press report). TechCrunch, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 7, chapter 8
21. 21Bublitz, C. et al., A moratorium on implantable non-medical neurotech until effects on the mind are properly understood, Neuroethics 18(3), article 46, 2025 (reference record read: proposes a mental impact assessment, a moratorium and a ban for children). Springer, Dordrecht. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
22. 22Ma, X. et al., Using adversarial networks to extend brain computer interface decoding accuracy over time, eLife 12, e84296, 2023 (reference record read). eLife Sciences, Cambridge. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 1, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
23. 23Wellman, S.M. et al., A materials roadmap to functional neural interface design, Advanced Functional Materials 28(12), 2018 (reference record read; no figures in the abstract). Wiley, Weinheim. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
24. 24Feng, Y. et al., Brain-computer interfaces: the dawn of a new era in disease treatment, Exploration 6(3), 2026 (reference record read: electrode biocompatibility and signal resolution named as challenges). Wiley, Beijing. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 1, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
25. 25UNVERIFIED, not opened: California Senate Bill 1223 (Becker), consumer privacy: sensitive personal information: neural data, signed 27 September 2024, in force 1 January 2025, taken from search-result summaries; the legislature page returned an access error. California Legislature, Sacramento. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
26. 26UNVERIFIED, not opened: report of January 2026 that Neuralink was enrolling 21 participants worldwide, taken from a search-result summary of a secondhand news item citing people familiar with the matter; weak evidence. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
27. 27UNVERIFIED, not opened: Paradromics (ed.), company statements on an FDA investigational device exemption for the Connect-One early feasibility study (November 2025, two initial participants) and a first implant at a university hospital, taken from search-result summaries of vendor announcements; weak evidence. Paradromics, Austin. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 8
28. 28UNVERIFIED, not opened: Medtronic (ed.), FDA approval of the BrainSense adaptive deep brain stimulation system for Parkinson disease, February 2025, taken from search-result summaries of trade coverage and a company announcement; weak evidence. Medtronic, Dublin. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 8
29. 29UNVERIFIED, not opened: market-research reports on the neurotechnology and brain-computer interface markets for 2025 (several firms; figures differ by a large factor depending on definition), taken from search-result summaries; weak evidence and no figure used. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 6, chapter 8
30. 30UNVERIFIED, not opened: trade reports of other company funding rounds in 2025 including a Series D for an endovascular interface company and a seed round for a new interface company, taken from search-result summaries; weak evidence and no figure used. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
31. 31UNVERIFIED, not opened: OECD (ed.), Recommendation of the Council on Responsible Innovation in Neurotechnology, 2019, cited from memory. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
32. 32UNVERIFIED, not opened: Meta Reality Labs research team, paper on a wrist-worn electromyography interface for generic human-computer interaction, Nature 2025, cited from memory; the Nature page redirected to an access check. Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 8
33. 33UNVERIFIED, not opened: Neurorights Foundation (ed.), report on privacy practices of consumer neurotechnology companies, 2024, cited from memory without figures; the foundation page returned not found. Neurorights Foundation, New York. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
34. 34UNVERIFIED, not opened: Yuste, R. et al., Four ethical priorities for neurotechnologies and AI, Nature 551, 159 to 163, 2017, cited from memory. Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
35. 35UNVERIFIED, not opened: Ienca, M. and Andorno, R., Towards new human rights in the age of neuroscience and neurotechnology, Life Sciences, Society and Policy 13, 5, 2017, cited from memory. Springer, Berlin. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
36. 36UNVERIFIED, not opened: Hochberg, L.R. et al., Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia, Nature 442, 164 to 171, 2006, cited from memory. Springer Nature, London. Observation year 2006. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
37. 37UNVERIFIED, not opened: Collinger, J.L. et al., High-performance neuroprosthetic control by an individual with tetraplegia, The Lancet 381, 557 to 564, 2013, cited from memory. Elsevier, London. Observation year 2013. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
38. 38UNVERIFIED, not opened: Moses, D.A. et al., Neuroprosthesis for decoding speech in a paralyzed person with anarthria, New England Journal of Medicine 385, 217 to 227, 2021, cited from memory. Massachusetts Medical Society, Waltham. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
39. 39UNVERIFIED, not opened: European Union, Regulation (EU) 2017/745 on medical devices, Annex XVI on products without an intended medical purpose (includes equipment for brain stimulation), cited from memory. Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
40. 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: ISO (ed.), ISO 14708-3, Implants for surgery: active implantable medical devices, part 3, implantable neurostimulators, cited from memory without figures. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
41. 41UNVERIFIED, not opened: Montana and Connecticut state laws on neural data, named in the Senate release [12] and in search-result summaries; texts not opened. State legislatures, Helena and Hartford. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
42. 42UNVERIFIED, not opened: Republic of Chile, Law 21.383 amending Article 19 of the Constitution on scientific and technological development and brain activity, 2021, reported in references 17 and 18; text not opened. Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
43. 43UNVERIFIED, not opened: European Union, Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 (Artificial Intelligence Act), Article 5 on prohibited practices including emotion recognition in workplaces and education, cited from memory. Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
44. 44UNVERIFIED, not opened: Neuralink company announcement of an FDA breakthrough device designation for a visual prosthesis, 2024, cited from memory; vendor announcement, weak evidence. Neuralink, Fremont. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 8

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