Singapore Systems Risk and Resilience Report 2026

S.1Abstract

S.2Key messages

Six readings that frame the Singapore baseline, and the eight questions this edition answers, each with its status and source.

1. Net emissions were 58.59 Mt CO₂e in 2022, with a projected peak near 61.9 Mt around 2028. The inventory page gives 55.5 Mt for 2023 as a separate publication.¹⁴¹⁷

   Where do emissions stand?Reported

2. The government reports that it is on track for its 2030 NDC. Climate Action Tracker rates the effort highly insufficient in an assessment last updated in August 2024.¹⁴¹⁸

   Is Singapore on course for its climate goals?Reported

3. Natural gas supplied 93.1% of electricity in 2025, mostly imported, and registered import capacity stood at 300 MW.⁸⁹²⁰

   How secure is electricity?Reported

4. Local farms supplied 8% of fibre and 25% of protein in 2025; food came from over 180 countries and regions.²⁷

   How secure is food?Reported

5. People aged 65 or over were 14.2% of the population in 2025, and fertility was 0.97 in 2024.¹²

   Is ageing a health risk?Reported

6. Water use is about 440 million gallons a day; protected land was 4.6% in 2025; flood and nature series are not bound.⁵²⁵⁵²

   What about water and nature?Reported

7. The IMF projects 3.5% growth for 2026 and 2.7% for 2027, after 5.0% in 2025.¹⁹

   What does the economy look like?Reported

8. An interruption to imported fuel during a heat-stress period that strains power, desalination, cold chains and data services together. SCN-SGP-ENE-01

   What will Q1 2027 test first?Expert input

S.3Headline finding

ReportedEQL 4NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-CLI-001

Net greenhouse-gas emissions reported to the UNFCCC were 58.59 Mt CO₂e in 2022, up from 58.29 Mt CO₂e in 2021 and 53.87 Mt CO₂e in 2020.

The government projects a peak near 61.9 Mt around 2028 and about 60 Mt in 2030¹⁴. The 2035 range of 45 to 50 Mt is 11.9 to 16.9 Mt below the projected peak (derived, see methods)¹⁵. The power sector accounted for about 40% of national emissions when EMA stated its import goal¹³, and natural gas supplied 93.1% of electricity in 2025⁸, so the power system is the first system to watch.

S.4At a glance

S.5What each steward reads in it

S.6What this edition is, and is not

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 3World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: GDP current US$ (NY.GDP.MKTP.CD), GDP growth (NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG), GNI per capita Atlas method (NY.GNP.PCAP.CD), trade as a share of GDP and food imports as a share of merchandise imports, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?format=jsonback
2. 7National Population and Talent Division, Strategy Group (ed.), Population in Brief 2025: Key Trends. Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Observation year 2025 (as at June 2025; total fertility 2024). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.population.gov.sg/population-in-brief-2025-key-trends/back
3. 14Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s First Biennial Transparency Report 2024 (BTR1) to the UNFCCC, hosted by the National Environment Agency. Submitted November 2024. Observation year 2022 (inventory) with projections to 2030. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/docs/default-source/cmd-documents/ghg-documents/singapore%27s-first-biennial-transparency-report-2024.pdfback
4. 15Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s Second Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and Accompanying Information. Submission to the UNFCCC, February 2025. Observation year 2035 (target). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/2025-02/Singapore%20Second%20Nationally%20Determined%20Contribution.pdfback
5. 16National Climate Change Secretariat (ed.), Singapore submits 2035 Nationally Determined Contribution (announcement of 10 February 2025). NCCS, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://nccs.gov.sg/singapore-submits-2035-nationally-determined-contributionback
6. 8Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.1 energy flows for electricity generators and Table 2.2 annual fuel mix for electricity generation, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore; tables accurate as of September 2026, 2026 data as at June 2026. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
7. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdfback
8. 27Singapore Food Agency (ed.), Singapore Food Statistics 2025 (media release of 8 May 2026). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/singapore-food-statistics-2025back
9. 25Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Water (policy page: four national taps, demand, Johor agreement, household use). MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026 (page), 2023 (household use). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/policies/water/back
10. 26Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), 2nd Reading of the Coastal Protection Bill: Opening Speech by Minister Grace Fu, 6 March 2026. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/2nd-reading-of-the-coastal-protection-bill—opening-speech-by-minister-grace-fu/back
11. 23National Environment Agency and Meteorological Service Singapore (eds.), Singapore records wettest ever March and hottest ever June and November in 2025 (Annual Climate Assessment 2025 release of 23 March 2026). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/news/news/index/spore-records-wettest-ever-march-and-hottest-ever-june-and-november-in-2025back
12. 17National Environment Agency (ed.), Greenhouse gas inventory (national emissions page). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2023 (55.5 Mt CO2-eq as stated on the page). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/our-services/climate-change-energy-efficiency/climate-change/greenhouse-gas-inventoryback
13. 18Climate Action Tracker (ed.), “Singapore” country assessment. Climate Analytics and NewClimate Institute; the page lists an update dated 28 August 2024. Observation year 2030 (target and policy projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/singapore/back
14. 9Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.4 electricity generation capacity by technology type and Table 2.6 installed capacity of grid-connected solar PV systems, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
15. 1DATA VINTAGE AFTER CLOSE: World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: population, total (SP.POP.TOTL), population ages 65 and above (SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS), population ages 0-14 and urban population, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC; database record last updated 8 October 2026. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?format=jsonback
16. 2World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: life expectancy at birth (SP.DYN.LE00.IN), total fertility rate (SP.DYN.TFRT.IN), infant mortality rate and physicians per 1,000 people, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2024 (life expectancy, fertility, infant mortality) and 2022 (physicians). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?format=jsonback
17. 5World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: land area, population density, forest area (AG.LND.FRST.ZS), terrestrial protected areas (ER.LND.PTLD.ZS) and agricultural land, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025 (protected areas) and 2024 (other series). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.LND.PTLD.ZS?format=jsonback
18. 52UNVERIFIED, not opened: PUB, Singapore’s National Water Agency (ed.), drainage, flood-prone area and reservoir records. PUB, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; the agency site returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
19. 19International Monetary Fund (ed.), IMF Executive Board Concludes 2026 Article IV Consultation with Singapore (Press Release No. 26/253). IMF, Washington DC, 20 July 2026; Board conclusion 15 July 2026. Observation year 2025 (outturn) and 2026 to 2027 (projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2026/07/20/pr26253-singapore-imf-executive-board-concludes-2026-article-iv-consultationback
20. 13Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore and Indonesia make substantive progress on electricity imports (media release). EMA, Singapore, 5 September 2024. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://ema.gov.sg/content/dam/corporate/news/media-releases/2024/20240905-Media-Release-Singapore-Indonesia-Make-Substantive-Progress-On-Electricity-Imports.pdf.coredownload.pdfback
21. 55UNVERIFIED, not opened: Singapore Department of Statistics (ed.), statistical releases and Singapore in Figures. SingStat, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back

1.1The questions this part answers

Key questions

• Where is Singapore’s risk concentrated, and in which systems?
• Which couplings carry shocks from one system to the next?
• Which capabilities hold under compound stress, and which are only documented?
• What must the 2027 programme measure first?

In this part

• Narrative
• Headline finding
• Lead figure
• Five system chapters
• Twelve-domain reading
• Sector screens
• Dependency matrix
• Risk objects
• Capability ladder
• Scenario
• Three lenses
• Portfolio

1.2The argument

1.3Twenty couplings between five systems

The Singapore matrix types the twenty couplings between the five core systems. Strengths are Nexus estimates from the cited evidence and analogue events; they set the starting graph that the Q1 2027 Foundry cut will test.

Transmission paths

1. 01

   TRD → ENE → WAT

   An import interruption tightens gas supply, then constrains desalination and NEWater.

   Expert input IMF exposure data²⁰

2. 02

   ENE → FOO

   Power loss interrupts cold chains for food that arrives by sea and air.

   Expert input import dependence²⁷

3. 03

   CLI → HLT

   Heat stress and rain-driven vector seasons raise demand on care.

   Reported heat days and dengue²³⁵⁹

4. 04

   CLI → INF → FIN

   Sea level, storm surge and tide reach coastal assets and public budgets.

   Reported coastal speech²⁶

5. 05

   ENE → DAT

   Power constraints reach data and communications services, a sub-sector that used 6,609 GWh in 2025.

   Expert input EMA table¹⁰

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 3World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: GDP current US$ (NY.GDP.MKTP.CD), GDP growth (NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG), GNI per capita Atlas method (NY.GNP.PCAP.CD), trade as a share of GDP and food imports as a share of merchandise imports, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?format=jsonback
2. 5World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: land area, population density, forest area (AG.LND.FRST.ZS), terrestrial protected areas (ER.LND.PTLD.ZS) and agricultural land, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025 (protected areas) and 2024 (other series). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.LND.PTLD.ZS?format=jsonback
3. 7National Population and Talent Division, Strategy Group (ed.), Population in Brief 2025: Key Trends. Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Observation year 2025 (as at June 2025; total fertility 2024). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.population.gov.sg/population-in-brief-2025-key-trends/back
4. 14Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s First Biennial Transparency Report 2024 (BTR1) to the UNFCCC, hosted by the National Environment Agency. Submitted November 2024. Observation year 2022 (inventory) with projections to 2030. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/docs/default-source/cmd-documents/ghg-documents/singapore%27s-first-biennial-transparency-report-2024.pdfback
5. 15Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s Second Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and Accompanying Information. Submission to the UNFCCC, February 2025. Observation year 2035 (target). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/2025-02/Singapore%20Second%20Nationally%20Determined%20Contribution.pdfback
6. 16National Climate Change Secretariat (ed.), Singapore submits 2035 Nationally Determined Contribution (announcement of 10 February 2025). NCCS, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://nccs.gov.sg/singapore-submits-2035-nationally-determined-contributionback
7. 18Climate Action Tracker (ed.), “Singapore” country assessment. Climate Analytics and NewClimate Institute; the page lists an update dated 28 August 2024. Observation year 2030 (target and policy projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/singapore/back
8. 21National Climate Change Secretariat (ed.), Carbon Tax (carbon tax rates and coverage). NCCS, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore; page dated 9 July 2026. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://nccs.gov.sg/singapores-climate-action/mitigation-efforts/carbontaxback
9. 22Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Written Reply to Parliamentary Question on Carbon Tax, 24 September 2025. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/written-reply-to-parliamentary-question-on-carbon-tax/back
10. 8Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.1 energy flows for electricity generators and Table 2.2 annual fuel mix for electricity generation, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore; tables accurate as of September 2026, 2026 data as at June 2026. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
11. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdfback
12. 9Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.4 electricity generation capacity by technology type and Table 2.6 installed capacity of grid-connected solar PV systems, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
13. 13Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore and Indonesia make substantive progress on electricity imports (media release). EMA, Singapore, 5 September 2024. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://ema.gov.sg/content/dam/corporate/news/media-releases/2024/20240905-Media-Release-Singapore-Indonesia-Make-Substantive-Progress-On-Electricity-Imports.pdf.coredownload.pdfback
14. 10Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 3.2 electricity consumption by sub-sector and Table 4.1 electricity balance, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch03/index3back
15. 42UNVERIFIED, not opened: Infocomm Media Development Authority (ed.), Green Data Centre Roadmap. IMDA, Singapore, 2024. The agency page did not render at evidence close. Observation year 2024.back
16. 27Singapore Food Agency (ed.), Singapore Food Statistics 2025 (media release of 8 May 2026). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/singapore-food-statistics-2025back
17. 25Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Water (policy page: four national taps, demand, Johor agreement, household use). MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026 (page), 2023 (household use). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/policies/water/back
18. 1DATA VINTAGE AFTER CLOSE: World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: population, total (SP.POP.TOTL), population ages 65 and above (SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS), population ages 0-14 and urban population, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC; database record last updated 8 October 2026. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?format=jsonback
19. 2World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: life expectancy at birth (SP.DYN.LE00.IN), total fertility rate (SP.DYN.TFRT.IN), infant mortality rate and physicians per 1,000 people, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2024 (life expectancy, fertility, infant mortality) and 2022 (physicians). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?format=jsonback
20. 23National Environment Agency and Meteorological Service Singapore (eds.), Singapore records wettest ever March and hottest ever June and November in 2025 (Annual Climate Assessment 2025 release of 23 March 2026). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/news/news/index/spore-records-wettest-ever-march-and-hottest-ever-june-and-november-in-2025back
21. 26Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), 2nd Reading of the Coastal Protection Bill: Opening Speech by Minister Grace Fu, 6 March 2026. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/2nd-reading-of-the-coastal-protection-bill—opening-speech-by-minister-grace-fu/back
22. 59National Environment Agency (ed.), dengue case counts for 2025: 3,990 cases as at 26 December 2025 and 13,651 cases in 2024, as reported by The Star (ANN/Straits Times) from NEA data, published 28 December 2025. Secondary report of the NEA series; the NEA page itself was not opened for 2025. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.thestar.com.my/aseanplus/aseanplus-news/2025/12/28/dengue-cases-in-singapore-hit-a-seven-year-low-in-2025-amid-global-decreaseback

2.1Headline finding

ReportedEQL 4NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-CLI-001

Net greenhouse-gas emissions reported to the UNFCCC were 58.59 Mt CO₂e in 2022, up from 58.29 Mt CO₂e in 2021 and 53.87 Mt CO₂e in 2020.

Implication

The government projects a peak near 61.9 Mt around 2028 and about 60 Mt in 2030¹⁴. The 2035 range of 45 to 50 Mt is 11.9 to 16.9 Mt below the projected peak (derived, see methods)¹⁵. The power sector accounted for about 40% of national emissions when EMA stated its import goal¹³, and natural gas supplied 93.1% of electricity in 2025⁸, so the power system is the first system to watch.

What would move it

The national inventory for 2024 and later, the second Biennial Transparency Report, the electricity mix for 2026 and 2027, and the pace of low-carbon electricity imports would each move this finding.

2.2Climate forcing

1. ReportedEQL 4NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-CLI-001

   Net greenhouse-gas emissions reported to the UNFCCC were 58.59 Mt CO₂e in 2022, up from 58.29 Mt CO₂e in 2021 and 53.87 Mt CO₂e in 2020; the government projects a peak near 61.9 Mt around 2028.¹⁴

2. ReportedEQL 4NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-CLI-002

   Singapore’s second NDC sets 45 to 50 Mt CO₂e for 2035, conditional on technological maturity and international cooperation; Climate Action Tracker rates the effort highly insufficient in an assessment last updated 28 August 2024.¹⁵¹⁶¹⁸

3. ReportedEQL 4NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-CLI-007

   The 2025 annual mean temperature was 28.1 °C, with 29 days of high heat stress and a record-wet March; sea level may rise by up to 1.15 m by 2100 and, with storm surge and tide, reach up to 5 m above today’s mean.²³²⁶

2.3Energy

1. ReportedEQL 5NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-ENE-003

   Natural gas supplied 93.1% of electricity in 2025 and solar 2.7%; solar supplied 4.2% in the first half of 2026.⁸

2. ReportedEQL 4NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-ENE-004

   Over 90% of electricity is generated from imported natural gas; net oil and gas imports are about 7% of GDP; 39% of petroleum oil imports and 26% of gas imports in 2025 came from countries bordering the Strait of Hormuz.²⁰

2.4Food

1. ReportedEQL 4NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-FOO-005

   Local farms supplied about 8% of fibre and 25% of protein consumption in 2025, against 2035 targets of 20% and 30%.²⁷

2. ReportedEQL 4NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-FOO-006

   Singapore sourced food from over 180 countries and regions in 2025.²⁷

2.5Health

1. ReportedEQL 4NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-HLT-008

   People aged 65 or over were 14.2% of the population in 2025, and total fertility was 0.97 births per woman in 2024.¹²

2. ReportedEQL 4NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-HLT-009

   Singapore recorded 3,990 dengue cases in 2025, to 26 December.⁵⁹

2.6Biodiversity

1. ReportedEQL 3NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-BIO-010

   Forest covered 21.8% of land in 2024 and terrestrial protected areas 4.6% in 2025, against a global target of 30% by 2030.⁵⁴⁸

2.7Water

1. ReportedEQL 4NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-WAT-011

   Singapore uses about 440 million gallons of water a day, expected to almost double by 2065, and holds 106 m³ of renewable internal freshwater per person.⁶²⁵

2.8Systemic

1. Expert inputEQL 2NRF-COUNTRY-SGP-2026-BASELINE-SYS-012

   The leading compound pathway for 2027 testing is an interruption to imported fuel during a heat-stress period that strains power, desalination, cold chains and data services together. §9.3

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 14Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s First Biennial Transparency Report 2024 (BTR1) to the UNFCCC, hosted by the National Environment Agency. Submitted November 2024. Observation year 2022 (inventory) with projections to 2030. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/docs/default-source/cmd-documents/ghg-documents/singapore%27s-first-biennial-transparency-report-2024.pdfback
2. 15Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s Second Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and Accompanying Information. Submission to the UNFCCC, February 2025. Observation year 2035 (target). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/2025-02/Singapore%20Second%20Nationally%20Determined%20Contribution.pdfback
3. 13Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore and Indonesia make substantive progress on electricity imports (media release). EMA, Singapore, 5 September 2024. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://ema.gov.sg/content/dam/corporate/news/media-releases/2024/20240905-Media-Release-Singapore-Indonesia-Make-Substantive-Progress-On-Electricity-Imports.pdf.coredownload.pdfback
4. 8Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.1 energy flows for electricity generators and Table 2.2 annual fuel mix for electricity generation, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore; tables accurate as of September 2026, 2026 data as at June 2026. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
5. 16National Climate Change Secretariat (ed.), Singapore submits 2035 Nationally Determined Contribution (announcement of 10 February 2025). NCCS, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://nccs.gov.sg/singapore-submits-2035-nationally-determined-contributionback
6. 18Climate Action Tracker (ed.), “Singapore” country assessment. Climate Analytics and NewClimate Institute; the page lists an update dated 28 August 2024. Observation year 2030 (target and policy projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/singapore/back
7. 23National Environment Agency and Meteorological Service Singapore (eds.), Singapore records wettest ever March and hottest ever June and November in 2025 (Annual Climate Assessment 2025 release of 23 March 2026). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/news/news/index/spore-records-wettest-ever-march-and-hottest-ever-june-and-november-in-2025back
8. 26Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), 2nd Reading of the Coastal Protection Bill: Opening Speech by Minister Grace Fu, 6 March 2026. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/2nd-reading-of-the-coastal-protection-bill—opening-speech-by-minister-grace-fu/back
9. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdfback
10. 27Singapore Food Agency (ed.), Singapore Food Statistics 2025 (media release of 8 May 2026). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/singapore-food-statistics-2025back
11. 1DATA VINTAGE AFTER CLOSE: World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: population, total (SP.POP.TOTL), population ages 65 and above (SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS), population ages 0-14 and urban population, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC; database record last updated 8 October 2026. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?format=jsonback
12. 2World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: life expectancy at birth (SP.DYN.LE00.IN), total fertility rate (SP.DYN.TFRT.IN), infant mortality rate and physicians per 1,000 people, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2024 (life expectancy, fertility, infant mortality) and 2022 (physicians). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?format=jsonback
13. 59National Environment Agency (ed.), dengue case counts for 2025: 3,990 cases as at 26 December 2025 and 13,651 cases in 2024, as reported by The Star (ANN/Straits Times) from NEA data, published 28 December 2025. Secondary report of the NEA series; the NEA page itself was not opened for 2025. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.thestar.com.my/aseanplus/aseanplus-news/2025/12/28/dengue-cases-in-singapore-hit-a-seven-year-low-in-2025-amid-global-decreaseback
14. 5World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: land area, population density, forest area (AG.LND.FRST.ZS), terrestrial protected areas (ER.LND.PTLD.ZS) and agricultural land, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025 (protected areas) and 2024 (other series). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.LND.PTLD.ZS?format=jsonback
15. 48UNVERIFIED, not opened: Convention on Biological Diversity (ed.), Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, Decision 15/4. CBD Secretariat, Montreal, 2022. Observation year 2022.back
16. 6World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: renewable internal freshwater resources per capita (ER.H2O.INTR.PC), annual freshwater withdrawals (ER.H2O.FWTL.ZS), safely managed drinking water and sanitation services and current health expenditure, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2022 (freshwater), 2024 (water and sanitation access) and 2023 (health expenditure). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.H2O.INTR.PC?format=jsonback
17. 25Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Water (policy page: four national taps, demand, Johor agreement, household use). MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026 (page), 2023 (household use). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/policies/water/back

3.1Where each system stood at evidence close

3.2Domain posture

Each of the twelve coupled domains is read in words, not scored. The coupling column names the dependency that carries risk into other systems.

3.3Sector screens

All sixteen sectors are screened on the same grammar, so that later editions can say what changed. The evidence column describes coverage of the baseline evidence, not the performance of the sector.

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 6World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: renewable internal freshwater resources per capita (ER.H2O.INTR.PC), annual freshwater withdrawals (ER.H2O.FWTL.ZS), safely managed drinking water and sanitation services and current health expenditure, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2022 (freshwater), 2024 (water and sanitation access) and 2023 (health expenditure). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.H2O.INTR.PC?format=jsonback
2. 25Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Water (policy page: four national taps, demand, Johor agreement, household use). MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026 (page), 2023 (household use). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/policies/water/back
3. 8Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.1 energy flows for electricity generators and Table 2.2 annual fuel mix for electricity generation, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore; tables accurate as of September 2026, 2026 data as at June 2026. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
4. 27Singapore Food Agency (ed.), Singapore Food Statistics 2025 (media release of 8 May 2026). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/singapore-food-statistics-2025back
5. 30POST-CLOSE, context only: National Environment Agency (ed.), Dengue cases (weekly counts and active clusters; 2,832 cases in the first 43 epidemiological weeks of 2026). NEA, Singapore; counts to 3 November 2026. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/dengue-zika/dengue/dengue-casesback
6. 59National Environment Agency (ed.), dengue case counts for 2025: 3,990 cases as at 26 December 2025 and 13,651 cases in 2024, as reported by The Star (ANN/Straits Times) from NEA data, published 28 December 2025. Secondary report of the NEA series; the NEA page itself was not opened for 2025. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.thestar.com.my/aseanplus/aseanplus-news/2025/12/28/dengue-cases-in-singapore-hit-a-seven-year-low-in-2025-amid-global-decreaseback
7. 5World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: land area, population density, forest area (AG.LND.FRST.ZS), terrestrial protected areas (ER.LND.PTLD.ZS) and agricultural land, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025 (protected areas) and 2024 (other series). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.LND.PTLD.ZS?format=jsonback
8. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdfback
9. 19International Monetary Fund (ed.), IMF Executive Board Concludes 2026 Article IV Consultation with Singapore (Press Release No. 26/253). IMF, Washington DC, 20 July 2026; Board conclusion 15 July 2026. Observation year 2025 (outturn) and 2026 to 2027 (projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2026/07/20/pr26253-singapore-imf-executive-board-concludes-2026-article-iv-consultationback
10. 3World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: GDP current US$ (NY.GDP.MKTP.CD), GDP growth (NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG), GNI per capita Atlas method (NY.GNP.PCAP.CD), trade as a share of GDP and food imports as a share of merchandise imports, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?format=jsonback
11. 14Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s First Biennial Transparency Report 2024 (BTR1) to the UNFCCC, hosted by the National Environment Agency. Submitted November 2024. Observation year 2022 (inventory) with projections to 2030. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/docs/default-source/cmd-documents/ghg-documents/singapore%27s-first-biennial-transparency-report-2024.pdfback
12. 52UNVERIFIED, not opened: PUB, Singapore’s National Water Agency (ed.), drainage, flood-prone area and reservoir records. PUB, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; the agency site returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
13. 26Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), 2nd Reading of the Coastal Protection Bill: Opening Speech by Minister Grace Fu, 6 March 2026. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/2nd-reading-of-the-coastal-protection-bill—opening-speech-by-minister-grace-fu/back
14. 23National Environment Agency and Meteorological Service Singapore (eds.), Singapore records wettest ever March and hottest ever June and November in 2025 (Annual Climate Assessment 2025 release of 23 March 2026). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/news/news/index/spore-records-wettest-ever-march-and-hottest-ever-june-and-november-in-2025back
15. 32Cyber Security Agency of Singapore (ed.), Singapore Cyber Landscape 2025/2026 (publication page, released 30 June 2026; the full report was not read, so no incident counts are used). CSA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.csa.gov.sg/resources/publications/singapore-cyber-landscape-2025-2026/back
16. 21National Climate Change Secretariat (ed.), Carbon Tax (carbon tax rates and coverage). NCCS, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore; page dated 9 July 2026. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://nccs.gov.sg/singapores-climate-action/mitigation-efforts/carbontaxback
17. 36POST-CLOSE, context only: J. Zscheischler, S. Westra, B. J. J. M. van den Hurk et al., “Future climate risk from compound events,” Nature Climate Change, vol. 8, pp. 469–477, 2018. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0156-3. Observation year 2018. Bibliographic record opened through Crossref on 3 November 2026; the article text was not read. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0156-3back
18. 37POST-CLOSE, context only: K. Ng, G. G. Garner, S. Weeks, P. Hogarth, M. Palmer et al., “Robust Sea-Level Projections for Singapore by 2100 and 2150,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, vol. 130, 2025. doi:10.1029/2024JC021840. Observation year 2025. Bibliographic record opened through Crossref on 3 November 2026; the article text was not read and its figures are not used. doi:10.1029/2024JC021840back

4.1Risk objects

Each risk is read across the chain from hazard to consequence, with its status and evidence-quality level.

1. ReportedEQL 4RSK-SGP-ENE-001

   Imported fuel interruption and price shock

   Driver

   disruption to gas or oil flows; price spike

   Exposure

   power, petrochemicals, desalination, cold chains

   Vulnerability

   93.1% gas electricity; over 90% imported gas⁸²⁰

   Capacity

   import capacity 300 MW; reserve margins not bound⁹

   Cascade

   ENE → WAT, FOO, HLT, FIN

   Horizon

   1–5 years

2. ReportedEQL 4RSK-SGP-CLI-002

   Heat, heavy rain and sea-level rise

   Driver

   warming, intense rain, storm surge and tide

   Exposure

   low-lying coast, drainage, dense housing

   Vulnerability

   flood loss records not bound⁵²

   Capacity

   coastal protection framework in 2026²⁶

   Cascade

   CLI → INF, HLT, FIN

   Horizon

   annual to 30 years

3. ReportedEQL 4RSK-SGP-FOO-003

   Import dependence for food

   Driver

   trade disruption; harvest failure abroad

   Exposure

   households and food service

   Vulnerability

   local share 8% of fibre and 25% of protein²⁷

   Capacity

   stockpile levels not bound

   Cascade

   TRD → FOO → HLT, FIN

   Horizon

   1–5 years

4. ReportedEQL 3RSK-SGP-WAT-004

   Water demand growth against weather-linked supply

   Driver

   demand nearly doubling by 2065; dry spells

   Exposure

   households, industry, data services

   Vulnerability

   reservoir storage not bound⁵²

   Capacity

   NEWater and desalination are weather-resilient sources²⁴

   Cascade

   WAT → HLT, ENE

   Horizon

   5–30 years

4.2Capability ladder

Existence is not readiness. Each of the fifteen capability functions is placed on the ladder by the strongest public evidence at baseline.

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 8Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.1 energy flows for electricity generators and Table 2.2 annual fuel mix for electricity generation, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore; tables accurate as of September 2026, 2026 data as at June 2026. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
2. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdfback
3. 9Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.4 electricity generation capacity by technology type and Table 2.6 installed capacity of grid-connected solar PV systems, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
4. 52UNVERIFIED, not opened: PUB, Singapore’s National Water Agency (ed.), drainage, flood-prone area and reservoir records. PUB, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; the agency site returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
5. 26Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), 2nd Reading of the Coastal Protection Bill: Opening Speech by Minister Grace Fu, 6 March 2026. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/2nd-reading-of-the-coastal-protection-bill—opening-speech-by-minister-grace-fu/back
6. 27Singapore Food Agency (ed.), Singapore Food Statistics 2025 (media release of 8 May 2026). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/singapore-food-statistics-2025back
7. 24Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Oral Reply to Parliamentary Question on Water supply planning, 7 May 2026. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/oral-reply-to-parliamentary-question-on-water-supply-planning/back
8. 23National Environment Agency and Meteorological Service Singapore (eds.), Singapore records wettest ever March and hottest ever June and November in 2025 (Annual Climate Assessment 2025 release of 23 March 2026). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/news/news/index/spore-records-wettest-ever-march-and-hottest-ever-june-and-november-in-2025back
9. 13Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore and Indonesia make substantive progress on electricity imports (media release). EMA, Singapore, 5 September 2024. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://ema.gov.sg/content/dam/corporate/news/media-releases/2024/20240905-Media-Release-Singapore-Indonesia-Make-Substantive-Progress-On-Electricity-Imports.pdf.coredownload.pdfback
10. 28Singapore Food Agency (ed.), SFA remains committed to food resilience (reply of 26 June 2025, citing Singapore Food Statistics 2024). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/2025/sfa-remains-committed-to-food-resilienceback
11. 55UNVERIFIED, not opened: Singapore Department of Statistics (ed.), statistical releases and Singapore in Figures. SingStat, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
12. 53UNVERIFIED, not opened: Ministry of Health (ed.), national health statistics and heat-illness records. MOH, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back

5.1Assumptions

Scenario SCN-SGP-ENE-01: what is assumed, and what is held constant.

Baseline

the 2026 reference state in this edition

Drivers

an interruption to oil and gas flows through the Strait of Hormuz that tightens imported fuel for power and industry, during a period of high heat stress

Analogues

the 2026 energy price shock described in the IMF record¹⁹²⁰; 29 days of high heat stress in 2025²³

Interventions

none modelled; the specification describes the unmitigated case

Run state

narrative specification; quantified Foundry run scheduled for Q1 2027

5.2The cascade, step by step

1. 1

   TRD → ENE

   imported gas and fuel supply tightens

   IMF exposure data²⁰

2. 2

   ENE → WAT

   power constraints reach desalination, NEWater and pumping

   expert input

3. 3

   ENE → FOO

   cold chains and logistics lose power margin

   expert input

4. 4

   CLI → HLT

   heat stress raises cooling demand and demand for care

   heat days²³

5. 5

   ENE → DAT

   data services and their cooling compete for power

   expert input

6. 6

   ENE → FIN

   the energy price shock reaches inflation and fiscal support

   IMF¹⁹

5.3The scenario as a table of steps

How the shock in scenario SCN-SGP-ENE-01 would travel through Singapore’s coupled systems, step by step, under the assumptions the edition states.

A teaching model of a conditional scenario under the edition’s stated assumptions: not a forecast, not a prediction and not a warning. Sources: Singapore 2026, scenario SCN-SGP-ENE-01 (2026); Singapore 2026, references (NR-CIT-1) (2026).

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 19International Monetary Fund (ed.), IMF Executive Board Concludes 2026 Article IV Consultation with Singapore (Press Release No. 26/253). IMF, Washington DC, 20 July 2026; Board conclusion 15 July 2026. Observation year 2025 (outturn) and 2026 to 2027 (projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2026/07/20/pr26253-singapore-imf-executive-board-concludes-2026-article-iv-consultationback
2. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdfback
3. 23National Environment Agency and Meteorological Service Singapore (eds.), Singapore records wettest ever March and hottest ever June and November in 2025 (Annual Climate Assessment 2025 release of 23 March 2026). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/news/news/index/spore-records-wettest-ever-march-and-hottest-ever-june-and-november-in-2025back

6.1The other desks’ editions of this subject

Federation: each desk writes its own edition for the subjects in its remit. Until a desk releases, its edition shows its frame and the reading this edition printed for it.

6.2Three lenses

One edition, read by each steward. The lens of this site comes first.

6.3Standards, Academy and steward contributions

How the Nexus Standards drafts, the Risk Academy and the three stewards feed each quarterly edition for Singapore. The standards are preparatory working drafts (October 2026) and are cited as drafts, never as adopted standards.

6.4GCRI reading: the model card

GCRI’s reading of this edition is its model card: what the national model is, what it computes and where it stops. It is printed in full in Annex A, with the methods it belongs to. Annex A, methodology

6.5Global Risks Forum reading: editorial essays

Four signed essays by the Reports editorial team set out the positions this edition takes. They are interpretation, labelled as such; the evidence they draw on is in the findings register.

6.6Global Risks Alliance reading: q1 2027 readiness pack

The registers that open the first operational quarter. At baseline each is initialised from this edition.

Publication dispositions

• Publish
• Hold
• Needs evidence
• Restricted
• Superseded

6.7Nexus Standards reading: standards and regulatory watch

Instruments that shape the systems in this edition, by status on the retrieval date. The edition assesses no one’s compliance.

• IN FORCE
• ADOPTED
• SUBMITTED
• UNDER REVIEW
• PUBLISHED · VOLUNTARY

6.8Risk Academy reading: literature and evidence review, science and assessments

The review behind this edition covers peer-reviewed science, national and international assessments and the institutional reports that bind its findings. Full systematic reviews begin in Q1 2027 for each agenda item.

Review protocol

Question

What does the published evidence establish about Singapore’s coupled water, energy, food, health and biodiversity risks?

Sources searched

peer-reviewed literature; national and international assessments; official releases; industry loss data

Window

releases available at evidence close, 30 September 2026

Selection

sources that bind or contextualise a finding in this edition

Next step

systematic reviews for agenda items A-01 to A-05 in Q1 2027

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 15Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s Second Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and Accompanying Information. Submission to the UNFCCC, February 2025. Observation year 2035 (target). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/2025-02/Singapore%20Second%20Nationally%20Determined%20Contribution.pdfback
2. 16National Climate Change Secretariat (ed.), Singapore submits 2035 Nationally Determined Contribution (announcement of 10 February 2025). NCCS, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://nccs.gov.sg/singapore-submits-2035-nationally-determined-contributionback
3. 46UNVERIFIED, not opened: UNFCCC (ed.), Paris Agreement. United Nations, Paris, 2015. The treaty page returned no text at evidence close. Observation year 2015.back
4. 44UNVERIFIED, not opened: Government of Singapore (ed.), Carbon Pricing Act 2018. Singapore Statutes Online. The statute site returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year 2018 (enactment).back
5. 21National Climate Change Secretariat (ed.), Carbon Tax (carbon tax rates and coverage). NCCS, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore; page dated 9 July 2026. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://nccs.gov.sg/singapores-climate-action/mitigation-efforts/carbontaxback
6. 22Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Written Reply to Parliamentary Question on Carbon Tax, 24 September 2025. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/written-reply-to-parliamentary-question-on-carbon-tax/back
7. 26Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), 2nd Reading of the Coastal Protection Bill: Opening Speech by Minister Grace Fu, 6 March 2026. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/2nd-reading-of-the-coastal-protection-bill—opening-speech-by-minister-grace-fu/back
8. 45UNVERIFIED, not opened: Government of Singapore (ed.), Cybersecurity Act 2018. Singapore Statutes Online. Not opened at evidence close. Observation year 2018 (enactment).back
9. 33Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore Green Plan 2030 (national sustainability plan page). Singapore Green Plan Office. Observation year as published, not dated on the page. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.greenplan.gov.sg/back
10. 25Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Water (policy page: four national taps, demand, Johor agreement, household use). MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026 (page), 2023 (household use). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/policies/water/back
11. 13Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore and Indonesia make substantive progress on electricity imports (media release). EMA, Singapore, 5 September 2024. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://ema.gov.sg/content/dam/corporate/news/media-releases/2024/20240905-Media-Release-Singapore-Indonesia-Make-Substantive-Progress-On-Electricity-Imports.pdf.coredownload.pdfback
12. 43UNVERIFIED, not opened: Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore’s Energy Story (national energy transition, solar and hydrogen goals). EMA, Singapore. Known from search results only. Observation year as published, not bound.back
13. 42UNVERIFIED, not opened: Infocomm Media Development Authority (ed.), Green Data Centre Roadmap. IMDA, Singapore, 2024. The agency page did not render at evidence close. Observation year 2024.back
14. 27Singapore Food Agency (ed.), Singapore Food Statistics 2025 (media release of 8 May 2026). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/singapore-food-statistics-2025back
15. 47UNVERIFIED, not opened: UNDRR (ed.), Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. UNDRR, Geneva, 2015. Observation year 2015.back
16. 48UNVERIFIED, not opened: Convention on Biological Diversity (ed.), Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, Decision 15/4. CBD Secretariat, Montreal, 2022. Observation year 2022.back
17. 56UNVERIFIED, not opened: Monetary Authority of Singapore (ed.), Singapore-Asia Taxonomy for Sustainable Finance and insurance sector records. MAS, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
18. 19International Monetary Fund (ed.), IMF Executive Board Concludes 2026 Article IV Consultation with Singapore (Press Release No. 26/253). IMF, Washington DC, 20 July 2026; Board conclusion 15 July 2026. Observation year 2025 (outturn) and 2026 to 2027 (projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2026/07/20/pr26253-singapore-imf-executive-board-concludes-2026-article-iv-consultationback
19. 34POST-CLOSE, context only: H. Lee and J. Romero (eds.), Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the IPCC. IPCC, Geneva, 2023. doi:10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647. Observation year 2023. Bibliographic record opened through Crossref on 3 November 2026; the report text was not read. doi:10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647back
20. 35POST-CLOSE, context only: P. D. McElwee, P. A. Harrison, T. L. van Huysen et al. (eds.), IPBES Nexus Assessment: Thematic Assessment Report on the Interlinkages among Biodiversity, Water, Food and Health. IPBES secretariat, Bonn, 2024. doi:10.5281/zenodo.13850054. Observation year 2024. Bibliographic record opened through DataCite on 3 November 2026; the report text was not read. doi:10.5281/zenodo.13850054back
21. 36POST-CLOSE, context only: J. Zscheischler, S. Westra, B. J. J. M. van den Hurk et al., “Future climate risk from compound events,” Nature Climate Change, vol. 8, pp. 469–477, 2018. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0156-3. Observation year 2018. Bibliographic record opened through Crossref on 3 November 2026; the article text was not read. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0156-3back
22. 37POST-CLOSE, context only: K. Ng, G. G. Garner, S. Weeks, P. Hogarth, M. Palmer et al., “Robust Sea-Level Projections for Singapore by 2100 and 2150,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, vol. 130, 2025. doi:10.1029/2024JC021840. Observation year 2025. Bibliographic record opened through Crossref on 3 November 2026; the article text was not read and its figures are not used. doi:10.1029/2024JC021840back
23. 38POST-CLOSE, context only: J. Koplitz, L. J. Mickley, M. E. Marlier et al., “Public health impacts of the severe haze in Equatorial Asia in September–October 2015,” Environmental Research Letters, vol. 11, 094023, 2016. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/9/094023. Observation year 2015. Bibliographic record opened through Crossref on 3 November 2026; the article text was not read. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/9/094023back
24. 39UNVERIFIED, not opened: Centre for Climate Research Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s Third National Climate Change Study (V3) climate projections. Meteorological Service Singapore, 2024. Observation year 2024 (release year taken from press coverage). The sea-level range used in this edition is quoted from [26], not from this study.back
25. 14Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s First Biennial Transparency Report 2024 (BTR1) to the UNFCCC, hosted by the National Environment Agency. Submitted November 2024. Observation year 2022 (inventory) with projections to 2030. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/docs/default-source/cmd-documents/ghg-documents/singapore%27s-first-biennial-transparency-report-2024.pdfback
26. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdfback
27. 1DATA VINTAGE AFTER CLOSE: World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: population, total (SP.POP.TOTL), population ages 65 and above (SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS), population ages 0-14 and urban population, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC; database record last updated 8 October 2026. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?format=jsonback
28. 2World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: life expectancy at birth (SP.DYN.LE00.IN), total fertility rate (SP.DYN.TFRT.IN), infant mortality rate and physicians per 1,000 people, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2024 (life expectancy, fertility, infant mortality) and 2022 (physicians). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?format=jsonback
29. 3World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: GDP current US$ (NY.GDP.MKTP.CD), GDP growth (NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG), GNI per capita Atlas method (NY.GNP.PCAP.CD), trade as a share of GDP and food imports as a share of merchandise imports, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?format=jsonback
30. 5World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: land area, population density, forest area (AG.LND.FRST.ZS), terrestrial protected areas (ER.LND.PTLD.ZS) and agricultural land, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025 (protected areas) and 2024 (other series). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.LND.PTLD.ZS?format=jsonback
31. 8Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.1 energy flows for electricity generators and Table 2.2 annual fuel mix for electricity generation, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore; tables accurate as of September 2026, 2026 data as at June 2026. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
32. 9Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.4 electricity generation capacity by technology type and Table 2.6 installed capacity of grid-connected solar PV systems, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
33. 10Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 3.2 electricity consumption by sub-sector and Table 4.1 electricity balance, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch03/index3back
34. 11Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 1.1 imports of energy products and Table 4.2 natural gas balance, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://ema.gov.sg/resources/singapore-energy-statistics/chapter1back
35. 12Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.3 electricity grid emission factors, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
36. 28Singapore Food Agency (ed.), SFA remains committed to food resilience (reply of 26 June 2025, citing Singapore Food Statistics 2024). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/2025/sfa-remains-committed-to-food-resilienceback
37. 23National Environment Agency and Meteorological Service Singapore (eds.), Singapore records wettest ever March and hottest ever June and November in 2025 (Annual Climate Assessment 2025 release of 23 March 2026). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/news/news/index/spore-records-wettest-ever-march-and-hottest-ever-june-and-november-in-2025back
38. 59National Environment Agency (ed.), dengue case counts for 2025: 3,990 cases as at 26 December 2025 and 13,651 cases in 2024, as reported by The Star (ANN/Straits Times) from NEA data, published 28 December 2025. Secondary report of the NEA series; the NEA page itself was not opened for 2025. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.thestar.com.my/aseanplus/aseanplus-news/2025/12/28/dengue-cases-in-singapore-hit-a-seven-year-low-in-2025-amid-global-decreaseback
39. 31Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore (ed.), Singapore posts record port performance in 2025 and develops future readiness through industry collaborations for 2026 (media release of 13 January 2026). MPA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mpa.gov.sg/media-centre/details/singapore-posts-record-port-performance-in-2025-and-develops-future-readiness-through-industry-collaborations-for-2026back
40. 49UNVERIFIED, not opened: United Nations Environment Programme (ed.), Emissions Gap Report 2025. UNEP, Nairobi, 2025. The agency page returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year 2025.back
41. 50UNVERIFIED, not opened: UNDRR (ed.), Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2025. UNDRR, Geneva, 2025. The agency page returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year 2025.back
42. 32Cyber Security Agency of Singapore (ed.), Singapore Cyber Landscape 2025/2026 (publication page, released 30 June 2026; the full report was not read, so no incident counts are used). CSA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.csa.gov.sg/resources/publications/singapore-cyber-landscape-2025-2026/back
43. 52UNVERIFIED, not opened: PUB, Singapore’s National Water Agency (ed.), drainage, flood-prone area and reservoir records. PUB, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; the agency site returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
44. 53UNVERIFIED, not opened: Ministry of Health (ed.), national health statistics and heat-illness records. MOH, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back

7.1Questions for the operational series

1. A-01

   How would an interruption to imported gas and oil propagate through power, desalination, cold chains and data services?

   INI-SGP-ENE-01 · import-linked power resilience; first output: dependency graph for the four national taps and the grid.

2. A-02

   How would a high tide, storm surge and heavy-rain sequence combine to flood low-lying coast and drainage?

   INI-SGP-CLI-02 · coast and drainage; first output: coastal exposure register.

3. A-03

   How exposed are fibre and protein supply to concurrent import and local-farm shocks?

   INI-SGP-FOO-03 · food import exposure; first output: commodity and origin table.

4. A-04

   How do ageing, heat stress and dengue seasons change demand on clinics and care?

   INI-SGP-HLT-04 · ageing and heat; first output: service demand baseline.

5. A-05

   Who bears the cost of coastal and flood protection and of energy price shocks?

   INI-SGP-FIN-05 · protection and price shocks; first output: public and private cost table.

6. A-06

   How do rainfall variability and power supply shape the four national taps?

   INI-SGP-WAT-06 · water under stress; first output: tap performance note.

7. A-07

   How do data-centre growth and electricity demand interact with grid and cooling capacity?

   To be admitted in Q1 2027; first output: scoping note.

8. A-08

   Which capabilities have been tested in real events, and which are only planned?

   National capability register; first output: rung evidence for 15 functions.

7.2Portfolio proposed for the Q1 2027 alignment

Five initiatives and one Universe mission candidate are proposed for admission at the Q1 2027 alignment. They are programme objects, no partner, funder or member is attached to them in this edition.

7.3The pathway

Singapore is the national pathway through which the Nexus operating system will run in Singapore from 2027. At baseline the pathway is designed and its records are prepared; its councils and working groups are constituted from Q1 2027. This page states what exists today and what comes next, nothing more.

1. 01

   One National Agenda

   bounded national questions for the year

   DRAFT 2027 · agenda review at the Q1 alignment

2. 02

   National Desk

   coordination, records, routing and continuity

   DESIGNED · constituted in Q1 2027

3. 03

   National Model

   the country as a system of systems

   v0 SPECIFIED · v1 with the first Foundry cut

4. 04

   National Portfolio

   risks, capabilities, initiatives, projects, missions

   7 PROPOSED · admission at the Q1 alignment

5. 05

   Foundry

   continuous computational environment

   PREPARED · first sealed cut NQ-SGP-2027-Q1

6. 06

   Reports

   quarterly and annual publication

   BASELINE ISSUED · Q1 2027 · State & Agenda

7. 07

   Universe

   annual proving environment

   CANDIDATE MISSION · mandate set in 2027

8. 08

   Evidence and correction

   after-action, correction and renewal

   OPEN · first correction cycle in Q2 2027

7.4Universe 2027, evidence pack for the candidate mission

1. 01

   Mandate

2. 02

   Core Build · 1 month

3. 03

   Action · 1 week

4. 04

   Evidence seal

5. 05

   Portfolio correction

6. 06

   Next mandate

Mission

ID

MSN-SGP-2027-01 · Imported-fuel and heat Universe mission

Role spine

Leadership sponsor (NLC) · Institutional anchor (NNC) · Mission lead (NWG)

Receiving actors

to be identified with the mandate

7.5Handoffs and routing

Where the baseline’s findings go next. A handoff routes a finding for awareness, review or work; it transfers no authority.

7.6Feeds and signal register

Escalation routes

• none · keep monitoring
• research question
• project
• risk object
• quarterly publication
• signal report

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 14Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s First Biennial Transparency Report 2024 (BTR1) to the UNFCCC, hosted by the National Environment Agency. Submitted November 2024. Observation year 2022 (inventory) with projections to 2030. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/docs/default-source/cmd-documents/ghg-documents/singapore%27s-first-biennial-transparency-report-2024.pdfback
2. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdfback
3. 27Singapore Food Agency (ed.), Singapore Food Statistics 2025 (media release of 8 May 2026). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/singapore-food-statistics-2025back

8.1Water, the baseline system chapter

Singapore uses about 440 million gallons of water a day, expected to almost double by 2065, and holds 106 m³ of renewable internal freshwater per person. Reservoir storage and flood records are not bound in this edition.

8.2Energy, the baseline system chapter

Natural gas supplied 93.1% of electricity in 2025 and solar 2.7%, and the IMF reports that over 90% of electricity comes from imported natural gas.

8.3Food and agrifood, the baseline system chapter

Local farms supplied about 8% of fibre and 25% of protein consumption in 2025, and food came from over 180 countries and regions, so food security is a trade question and a farm productivity question.

8.4Health and One Health, the baseline system chapter

People aged 65 or over were 14.2% of the population in 2025 and fertility was 0.97 in 2024; dengue recorded 3,990 cases in 2025.

8.5Biodiversity and ecosystems, the baseline system chapter

Forest covered 21.8% of land in 2024 and terrestrial protected areas 4.6% in 2025, against a global target of 30% by 2030. National extent and marine protection records are not bound.

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 25Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Water (policy page: four national taps, demand, Johor agreement, household use). MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026 (page), 2023 (household use). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/policies/water/back
2. 6World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: renewable internal freshwater resources per capita (ER.H2O.INTR.PC), annual freshwater withdrawals (ER.H2O.FWTL.ZS), safely managed drinking water and sanitation services and current health expenditure, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2022 (freshwater), 2024 (water and sanitation access) and 2023 (health expenditure). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.H2O.INTR.PC?format=jsonback
3. 51UNVERIFIED, not opened: WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (eds.), Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2024. WHO and UNICEF, Geneva and New York, 2025. Source behind the World Bank access series; the country file was not read. Observation year 2024.back
4. 52UNVERIFIED, not opened: PUB, Singapore’s National Water Agency (ed.), drainage, flood-prone area and reservoir records. PUB, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; the agency site returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
5. 8Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.1 energy flows for electricity generators and Table 2.2 annual fuel mix for electricity generation, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore; tables accurate as of September 2026, 2026 data as at June 2026. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
6. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdfback
7. 9Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.4 electricity generation capacity by technology type and Table 2.6 installed capacity of grid-connected solar PV systems, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
8. 11Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 1.1 imports of energy products and Table 4.2 natural gas balance, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://ema.gov.sg/resources/singapore-energy-statistics/chapter1back
9. 10Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 3.2 electricity consumption by sub-sector and Table 4.1 electricity balance, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch03/index3back
10. 13Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore and Indonesia make substantive progress on electricity imports (media release). EMA, Singapore, 5 September 2024. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://ema.gov.sg/content/dam/corporate/news/media-releases/2024/20240905-Media-Release-Singapore-Indonesia-Make-Substantive-Progress-On-Electricity-Imports.pdf.coredownload.pdfback
11. 42UNVERIFIED, not opened: Infocomm Media Development Authority (ed.), Green Data Centre Roadmap. IMDA, Singapore, 2024. The agency page did not render at evidence close. Observation year 2024.back
12. 27Singapore Food Agency (ed.), Singapore Food Statistics 2025 (media release of 8 May 2026). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/singapore-food-statistics-2025back
13. 28Singapore Food Agency (ed.), SFA remains committed to food resilience (reply of 26 June 2025, citing Singapore Food Statistics 2024). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/2025/sfa-remains-committed-to-food-resilienceback
14. 29Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Written Reply to Parliamentary Question on 30-by-30 Food Sustainability Goal, 26 September 2025. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/written-reply-to-parliamentary-question-on-30-by-30-food-sustainability-goal-/back
15. 1DATA VINTAGE AFTER CLOSE: World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: population, total (SP.POP.TOTL), population ages 65 and above (SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS), population ages 0-14 and urban population, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC; database record last updated 8 October 2026. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?format=jsonback
16. 2World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: life expectancy at birth (SP.DYN.LE00.IN), total fertility rate (SP.DYN.TFRT.IN), infant mortality rate and physicians per 1,000 people, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2024 (life expectancy, fertility, infant mortality) and 2022 (physicians). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?format=jsonback
17. 59National Environment Agency (ed.), dengue case counts for 2025: 3,990 cases as at 26 December 2025 and 13,651 cases in 2024, as reported by The Star (ANN/Straits Times) from NEA data, published 28 December 2025. Secondary report of the NEA series; the NEA page itself was not opened for 2025. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.thestar.com.my/aseanplus/aseanplus-news/2025/12/28/dengue-cases-in-singapore-hit-a-seven-year-low-in-2025-amid-global-decreaseback
18. 23National Environment Agency and Meteorological Service Singapore (eds.), Singapore records wettest ever March and hottest ever June and November in 2025 (Annual Climate Assessment 2025 release of 23 March 2026). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/news/news/index/spore-records-wettest-ever-march-and-hottest-ever-june-and-november-in-2025back
19. 53UNVERIFIED, not opened: Ministry of Health (ed.), national health statistics and heat-illness records. MOH, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
20. 54UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Environment Agency (ed.), haze and Pollutant Standards Index records. NEA, Singapore. Source for a designed gap; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
21. 30POST-CLOSE, context only: National Environment Agency (ed.), Dengue cases (weekly counts and active clusters; 2,832 cases in the first 43 epidemiological weeks of 2026). NEA, Singapore; counts to 3 November 2026. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/dengue-zika/dengue/dengue-casesback
22. 5World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: land area, population density, forest area (AG.LND.FRST.ZS), terrestrial protected areas (ER.LND.PTLD.ZS) and agricultural land, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025 (protected areas) and 2024 (other series). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.LND.PTLD.ZS?format=jsonback
23. 48UNVERIFIED, not opened: Convention on Biological Diversity (ed.), Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, Decision 15/4. CBD Secretariat, Montreal, 2022. Observation year 2022.back
24. 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Parks Board (ed.), nature reserves and nature areas of Singapore (agency page). NParks, Singapore. Source for a designed gap; the agency page returned an error at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
25. 41UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Parks Board (ed.), Singapore’s national biodiversity targets submitted to the Convention on Biological Diversity, October 2024. NParks, Singapore. Known from a press report only; the official document was not read. Observation year 2024.back

A.1Methods

The baseline uses published values and four simple derivations. Each is shown in full so that any reader can reproduce it.

A.2Model card, National Model v0

Model ID

MDL-SGP-NATIONAL · v0.1

Purpose

represent Singapore as coupled water, energy, food, health and biodiversity systems with forcing and transmission layers

Family

graph-based system of systems

Inputs

the cited sources of this edition; no proprietary data

Method

expert-specified coupling strengths (STRONG · MODERATE · WEAK) from evidence and analogue events

Validation

none yet, first validation against Q1 2027 Foundry evidence

Uncertainty

qualitative; strengths are hypotheses, not measurements

Domain of validity

national scale; not for planning area or asset-level use

Reproducibility

strength table and sources published in this edition

A.3The baseline evidence cut

Every Nexus edition is published from a frozen evidence cut. The baseline cut is documentary: it pins the exact edition of every source cited. Model runs begin with the first Foundry cut in Q1 2027.

Cut ID

NQ-SGP-2026-Q0-1

Type

baseline documentary cut

Resolution policy

pinned · as of 30 September 2026

Sources pinned

59 cited sources, each at the edition and retrieval date in the references

Model runs

none at baseline, analytical values are stated with their method

Digest

computed at freeze and recorded in the publication record

Supersedes

nothing, first cut of the series

Superseded by

NQ-SGP-2027-Q1-1 at the Q1 2027 close

Lineage

1. 01

   source edition

2. 02

   pinned citation

3. 03

   finding

4. 04

   page

5. 05

   publication record

A.4Evidence age and coverage

A 2026 edition rests on evidence observed in many different years. This page shows each time base, so that no single year label hides older evidence.

A.5Evidence cards, two anchor sources

Evidence cards to follow in Q1 2027

• Energy statistics⁸⁹¹⁰: data-centre load and reserve margins
• Water agency records⁵²: reservoir storage and flood extent
• Health agency records⁵³: heat illness and care continuity
• Cyber agency report³²: critical-infrastructure incident counts

A.6Publication acceptance record

Editorial self-check at evidence close. Every applicable item carries a disposition; the remaining items are review, approval and deposit.

A.7Status words

A.8How the edition is made, released and corrected

Every edition is built from a sealed evidence cut, reviewed under three keys, signed and deposited before any site shows it as published; corrections go to Nexus Standards as change proposals and feed the next cut.

A teaching model of the process, not a forecast and not a record of any run; dates and counts on this page come from the programme record. Sources: Reports governance at GCRI Canada (2026); Zenodo, repository of record for Reports deposits (2026).

Lifecycle, one state at a time: Draft, Computed, Evidence bound, Reviewed, Approved for release, Published, Corrected, Superseded. This edition is a draft.

A.9Glossary and abbreviations

A.10Technical annex

A.1 · indicator definition, net emissions including land use

Construct

annual national greenhouse-gas emissions and removals as reported for the NDC indicator

Unit

Mt CO₂e, as published in the Biennial Transparency Report

Scope

calendar year, national, all sectors including land use, land-use change and forestry

Source

Biennial Transparency Report¹⁴

Revision

later inventory publications may recalculate earlier years

Known limits

the NEA inventory page gives 55.5 Mt CO₂e for 2023¹⁷; the two publications were not reconciled and are not joined

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 8Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.1 energy flows for electricity generators and Table 2.2 annual fuel mix for electricity generation, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore; tables accurate as of September 2026, 2026 data as at June 2026. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
2. 19International Monetary Fund (ed.), IMF Executive Board Concludes 2026 Article IV Consultation with Singapore (Press Release No. 26/253). IMF, Washington DC, 20 July 2026; Board conclusion 15 July 2026. Observation year 2025 (outturn) and 2026 to 2027 (projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2026/07/20/pr26253-singapore-imf-executive-board-concludes-2026-article-iv-consultationback
3. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdfback
4. 9Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.4 electricity generation capacity by technology type and Table 2.6 installed capacity of grid-connected solar PV systems, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
5. 10Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 3.2 electricity consumption by sub-sector and Table 4.1 electricity balance, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch03/index3back
6. 52UNVERIFIED, not opened: PUB, Singapore’s National Water Agency (ed.), drainage, flood-prone area and reservoir records. PUB, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; the agency site returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
7. 53UNVERIFIED, not opened: Ministry of Health (ed.), national health statistics and heat-illness records. MOH, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
8. 32Cyber Security Agency of Singapore (ed.), Singapore Cyber Landscape 2025/2026 (publication page, released 30 June 2026; the full report was not read, so no incident counts are used). CSA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.csa.gov.sg/resources/publications/singapore-cyber-landscape-2025-2026/back
9. 14Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s First Biennial Transparency Report 2024 (BTR1) to the UNFCCC, hosted by the National Environment Agency. Submitted November 2024. Observation year 2022 (inventory) with projections to 2030. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/docs/default-source/cmd-documents/ghg-documents/singapore%27s-first-biennial-transparency-report-2024.pdfback
10. 17National Environment Agency (ed.), Greenhouse gas inventory (national emissions page). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2023 (55.5 Mt CO2-eq as stated on the page). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/our-services/climate-change-energy-efficiency/climate-change/greenhouse-gas-inventoryback

B.1The indicator set

B.2National source register

The governed source set behind this edition. Each source keeps its authority, coverage, cadence and role; categories describe origin, not truth.

Domains bound by the register

• WAT
• ENE
• FOO
• HLT
• BIO
• CLI
• INF
• FIN
• TRD
• MIN

B.3Regional reading, Singapore by planning region

Map plates for every planning area follow in Q2 2027, when boundary sources and public-safe resolutions are bound. This page gives the regional reading in table form.

National context¹⁵⁷

B.4Atlas card, Coast and low-lying areas (island-wide)

• coast
• sea level
• storm surge and tide
• 2026 framework

Systems in view

drainage, roads, ports, power and health

Defining evidence

sea level may rise by up to 1.15 m by 2100; with storm surge and tide the level could reach up to 5 m above today’s mean; around 30% of Singapore could be flooded by seawater²⁶

Couplings

CLI → INF → FIN; CLI → HLT

Capability evidence

coastal protection framework in the 2026 bill²⁶

Gaps

flood loss records; asset condition; insurance cover

Agenda items

A-02 · A-05

B.5Singapore system card

The card through which Singapore appears in the ASEAN regional edition and the global series. It summarises; it does not rank.

Context

Archetype

city-state, import-dependent for fuel and food, trade hub

Population

6.11 million (June 2025)⁷

Trade

trade 320% of GDP; 44.66 million TEU in 2025³³¹

Climate effort

highly insufficient in the 2024 assessment¹⁸

B.6Licences

B.7Formats and provenance

Provenance

Edition pack

The edition’s content pack (JSON), from which the print and web editions are built

Evidence cut

NQ-SGP-2026-Q0-1, closed 30 September 2026

Reproducibility

sourced values cited; analytical values reproducible from stated parameters

Self-check

14 of 23 at evidence close; a fail on any item blocks release

Review

five passes scheduled before release (in Annex C)

Publisher of record

GCRI for the Nexus Consortium

Corrections

Registry correction pathway; upheld corrections are published as notices with a new version

Notes

Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references

1. 7National Population and Talent Division, Strategy Group (ed.), Population in Brief 2025: Key Trends. Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Observation year 2025 (as at June 2025; total fertility 2024). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.population.gov.sg/population-in-brief-2025-key-trends/back
2. 1DATA VINTAGE AFTER CLOSE: World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: population, total (SP.POP.TOTL), population ages 65 and above (SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS), population ages 0-14 and urban population, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC; database record last updated 8 October 2026. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?format=jsonback
3. 2World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: life expectancy at birth (SP.DYN.LE00.IN), total fertility rate (SP.DYN.TFRT.IN), infant mortality rate and physicians per 1,000 people, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2024 (life expectancy, fertility, infant mortality) and 2022 (physicians). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?format=jsonback
4. 3World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: GDP current US$ (NY.GDP.MKTP.CD), GDP growth (NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG), GNI per capita Atlas method (NY.GNP.PCAP.CD), trade as a share of GDP and food imports as a share of merchandise imports, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?format=jsonback
5. 14Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s First Biennial Transparency Report 2024 (BTR1) to the UNFCCC, hosted by the National Environment Agency. Submitted November 2024. Observation year 2022 (inventory) with projections to 2030. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/docs/default-source/cmd-documents/ghg-documents/singapore%27s-first-biennial-transparency-report-2024.pdfback
6. 15Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s Second Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and Accompanying Information. Submission to the UNFCCC, February 2025. Observation year 2035 (target). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/2025-02/Singapore%20Second%20Nationally%20Determined%20Contribution.pdfback
7. 8Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.1 energy flows for electricity generators and Table 2.2 annual fuel mix for electricity generation, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore; tables accurate as of September 2026, 2026 data as at June 2026. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
8. 9Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.4 electricity generation capacity by technology type and Table 2.6 installed capacity of grid-connected solar PV systems, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
9. 10Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 3.2 electricity consumption by sub-sector and Table 4.1 electricity balance, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch03/index3back
10. 12Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.3 electricity grid emission factors, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2back
11. 27Singapore Food Agency (ed.), Singapore Food Statistics 2025 (media release of 8 May 2026). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/singapore-food-statistics-2025back
12. 23National Environment Agency and Meteorological Service Singapore (eds.), Singapore records wettest ever March and hottest ever June and November in 2025 (Annual Climate Assessment 2025 release of 23 March 2026). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/news/news/index/spore-records-wettest-ever-march-and-hottest-ever-june-and-november-in-2025back
13. 59National Environment Agency (ed.), dengue case counts for 2025: 3,990 cases as at 26 December 2025 and 13,651 cases in 2024, as reported by The Star (ANN/Straits Times) from NEA data, published 28 December 2025. Secondary report of the NEA series; the NEA page itself was not opened for 2025. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.thestar.com.my/aseanplus/aseanplus-news/2025/12/28/dengue-cases-in-singapore-hit-a-seven-year-low-in-2025-amid-global-decreaseback
14. 6World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: renewable internal freshwater resources per capita (ER.H2O.INTR.PC), annual freshwater withdrawals (ER.H2O.FWTL.ZS), safely managed drinking water and sanitation services and current health expenditure, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2022 (freshwater), 2024 (water and sanitation access) and 2023 (health expenditure). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.H2O.INTR.PC?format=jsonback
15. 5World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: land area, population density, forest area (AG.LND.FRST.ZS), terrestrial protected areas (ER.LND.PTLD.ZS) and agricultural land, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025 (protected areas) and 2024 (other series). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.LND.PTLD.ZS?format=jsonback
16. 19International Monetary Fund (ed.), IMF Executive Board Concludes 2026 Article IV Consultation with Singapore (Press Release No. 26/253). IMF, Washington DC, 20 July 2026; Board conclusion 15 July 2026. Observation year 2025 (outturn) and 2026 to 2027 (projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2026/07/20/pr26253-singapore-imf-executive-board-concludes-2026-article-iv-consultationback
17. 4World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: electric power consumption per capita (EG.USE.ELEC.KH.PC), energy use per capita and PM2.5 air pollution exposure, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2024 (electricity, energy use) and 2023 (PM2.5). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/EG.USE.ELEC.KH.PC?format=jsonback
18. 11Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 1.1 imports of energy products and Table 4.2 natural gas balance, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://ema.gov.sg/resources/singapore-energy-statistics/chapter1back
19. 17National Environment Agency (ed.), Greenhouse gas inventory (national emissions page). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2023 (55.5 Mt CO2-eq as stated on the page). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/our-services/climate-change-energy-efficiency/climate-change/greenhouse-gas-inventoryback
20. 18Climate Action Tracker (ed.), “Singapore” country assessment. Climate Analytics and NewClimate Institute; the page lists an update dated 28 August 2024. Observation year 2030 (target and policy projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/singapore/back
21. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdfback
22. 28Singapore Food Agency (ed.), SFA remains committed to food resilience (reply of 26 June 2025, citing Singapore Food Statistics 2024). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/2025/sfa-remains-committed-to-food-resilienceback
23. 52UNVERIFIED, not opened: PUB, Singapore’s National Water Agency (ed.), drainage, flood-prone area and reservoir records. PUB, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; the agency site returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
24. 53UNVERIFIED, not opened: Ministry of Health (ed.), national health statistics and heat-illness records. MOH, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
25. 54UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Environment Agency (ed.), haze and Pollutant Standards Index records. NEA, Singapore. Source for a designed gap; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
26. 55UNVERIFIED, not opened: Singapore Department of Statistics (ed.), statistical releases and Singapore in Figures. SingStat, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back
27. 26Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), 2nd Reading of the Coastal Protection Bill: Opening Speech by Minister Grace Fu, 6 March 2026. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/2nd-reading-of-the-coastal-protection-bill—opening-speech-by-minister-grace-fu/back
28. 25Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Water (policy page: four national taps, demand, Johor agreement, household use). MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026 (page), 2023 (household use). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/policies/water/back
29. 31Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore (ed.), Singapore posts record port performance in 2025 and develops future readiness through industry collaborations for 2026 (media release of 13 January 2026). MPA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mpa.gov.sg/media-centre/details/singapore-posts-record-port-performance-in-2025-and-develops-future-readiness-through-industry-collaborations-for-2026back
30. 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Parks Board (ed.), nature reserves and nature areas of Singapore (agency page). NParks, Singapore. Source for a designed gap; the agency page returned an error at evidence close. Observation year none bound.back

C.159 sources

NR-CIT-1, editor first. A DOI is linked where the source has one; Nexus records carry a UNI once the catalogue allocates it (NS-1).

1. 1DATA VINTAGE AFTER CLOSE: World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: population, total (SP.POP.TOTL), population ages 65 and above (SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS), population ages 0-14 and urban population, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC; database record last updated 8 October 2026. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?format=json Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 6, chapter 8
2. 2World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: life expectancy at birth (SP.DYN.LE00.IN), total fertility rate (SP.DYN.TFRT.IN), infant mortality rate and physicians per 1,000 people, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2024 (life expectancy, fertility, infant mortality) and 2022 (physicians). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?format=json Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 6, chapter 8
3. 3World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: GDP current US$ (NY.GDP.MKTP.CD), GDP growth (NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG), GNI per capita Atlas method (NY.GNP.PCAP.CD), trade as a share of GDP and food imports as a share of merchandise imports, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?format=json Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 3, chapter 6
4. 4World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: electric power consumption per capita (EG.USE.ELEC.KH.PC), energy use per capita and PM2.5 air pollution exposure, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2024 (electricity, energy use) and 2023 (PM2.5). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/EG.USE.ELEC.KH.PC?format=json
5. 5World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: land area, population density, forest area (AG.LND.FRST.ZS), terrestrial protected areas (ER.LND.PTLD.ZS) and agricultural land, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2025 (protected areas) and 2024 (other series). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.LND.PTLD.ZS?format=json Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 6, chapter 8
6. 6World Bank (ed.), World Development Indicators: renewable internal freshwater resources per capita (ER.H2O.INTR.PC), annual freshwater withdrawals (ER.H2O.FWTL.ZS), safely managed drinking water and sanitation services and current health expenditure, Singapore. World Bank, Washington DC. Observation year 2022 (freshwater), 2024 (water and sanitation access) and 2023 (health expenditure). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/SGP/indicator/ER.H2O.INTR.PC?format=json Cited in chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 8
7. 7National Population and Talent Division, Strategy Group (ed.), Population in Brief 2025: Key Trends. Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Observation year 2025 (as at June 2025; total fertility 2024). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.population.gov.sg/population-in-brief-2025-key-trends/ Cited in the summary, chapter 1
8. 8Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.1 energy flows for electricity generators and Table 2.2 annual fuel mix for electricity generation, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore; tables accurate as of September 2026, 2026 data as at June 2026. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2 Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
9. 9Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.4 electricity generation capacity by technology type and Table 2.6 installed capacity of grid-connected solar PV systems, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025 and first half of 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2 Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
10. 10Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 3.2 electricity consumption by sub-sector and Table 4.1 electricity balance, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch03/index3 Cited in chapter 1, chapter 6, chapter 8
11. 11Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 1.1 imports of energy products and Table 4.2 natural gas balance, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://ema.gov.sg/resources/singapore-energy-statistics/chapter1 Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
12. 12Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore Energy Statistics 2026: Table 2.3 electricity grid emission factors, read from the SES_tabular workbook published with the chapter. EMA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.ema.gov.sg/singapore-energy-statistics/Ch02/index2 Cited in chapter 6
13. 13Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore and Indonesia make substantive progress on electricity imports (media release). EMA, Singapore, 5 September 2024. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://ema.gov.sg/content/dam/corporate/news/media-releases/2024/20240905-Media-Release-Singapore-Indonesia-Make-Substantive-Progress-On-Electricity-Imports.pdf.coredownload.pdf Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
14. 14Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s First Biennial Transparency Report 2024 (BTR1) to the UNFCCC, hosted by the National Environment Agency. Submitted November 2024. Observation year 2022 (inventory) with projections to 2030. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/docs/default-source/cmd-documents/ghg-documents/singapore%27s-first-biennial-transparency-report-2024.pdf Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 6, chapter 7
15. 15Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s Second Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and Accompanying Information. Submission to the UNFCCC, February 2025. Observation year 2035 (target). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/2025-02/Singapore%20Second%20Nationally%20Determined%20Contribution.pdf Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 6
16. 16National Climate Change Secretariat (ed.), Singapore submits 2035 Nationally Determined Contribution (announcement of 10 February 2025). NCCS, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://nccs.gov.sg/singapore-submits-2035-nationally-determined-contribution Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 6
17. 17National Environment Agency (ed.), Greenhouse gas inventory (national emissions page). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2023 (55.5 Mt CO2-eq as stated on the page). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/our-services/climate-change-energy-efficiency/climate-change/greenhouse-gas-inventory Cited in the summary
18. 18Climate Action Tracker (ed.), “Singapore” country assessment. Climate Analytics and NewClimate Institute; the page lists an update dated 28 August 2024. Observation year 2030 (target and policy projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/singapore/ Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2
19. 19International Monetary Fund (ed.), IMF Executive Board Concludes 2026 Article IV Consultation with Singapore (Press Release No. 26/253). IMF, Washington DC, 20 July 2026; Board conclusion 15 July 2026. Observation year 2025 (outturn) and 2026 to 2027 (projections). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2026/07/20/pr26253-singapore-imf-executive-board-concludes-2026-article-iv-consultation Cited in the summary, chapter 3, chapter 5, chapter 6
20. 20International Monetary Fund (ed.), Singapore: 2026 Article IV Consultation, Press Release, Staff Report and Statement by the Executive Director (IMF Country Report No. 26/185). IMF, Washington DC, 2026. Observation year 2025 (trade and energy exposure) and 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2026/english/1sgpea2026001.pdf Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 5, chapter 6, chapter 7, chapter 8
21. 21National Climate Change Secretariat (ed.), Carbon Tax (carbon tax rates and coverage). NCCS, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore; page dated 9 July 2026. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://nccs.gov.sg/singapores-climate-action/mitigation-efforts/carbontax Cited in chapter 1, chapter 3, chapter 6
22. 22Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Written Reply to Parliamentary Question on Carbon Tax, 24 September 2025. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/written-reply-to-parliamentary-question-on-carbon-tax/ Cited in chapter 1, chapter 6
23. 23National Environment Agency and Meteorological Service Singapore (eds.), Singapore records wettest ever March and hottest ever June and November in 2025 (Annual Climate Assessment 2025 release of 23 March 2026). NEA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/news/news/index/spore-records-wettest-ever-march-and-hottest-ever-june-and-november-in-2025 Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 5, chapter 6, chapter 8
24. 24Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Oral Reply to Parliamentary Question on Water supply planning, 7 May 2026. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/oral-reply-to-parliamentary-question-on-water-supply-planning/ Cited in chapter 4
25. 25Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Water (policy page: four national taps, demand, Johor agreement, household use). MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026 (page), 2023 (household use). Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/policies/water/ Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 6, chapter 8
26. 26Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), 2nd Reading of the Coastal Protection Bill: Opening Speech by Minister Grace Fu, 6 March 2026. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/2nd-reading-of-the-coastal-protection-bill—opening-speech-by-minister-grace-fu/ Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6
27. 27Singapore Food Agency (ed.), Singapore Food Statistics 2025 (media release of 8 May 2026). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/singapore-food-statistics-2025 Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 7, chapter 8
28. 28Singapore Food Agency (ed.), SFA remains committed to food resilience (reply of 26 June 2025, citing Singapore Food Statistics 2024). SFA, Singapore. Observation year 2024. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/news-publications/newsroom/2025/sfa-remains-committed-to-food-resilience Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
29. 29Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (ed.), Written Reply to Parliamentary Question on 30-by-30 Food Sustainability Goal, 26 September 2025. MSE, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mse.gov.sg/latest-news/written-reply-to-parliamentary-question-on-30-by-30-food-sustainability-goal-/ Cited in chapter 8
30. 30POST-CLOSE, context only: National Environment Agency (ed.), Dengue cases (weekly counts and active clusters; 2,832 cases in the first 43 epidemiological weeks of 2026). NEA, Singapore; counts to 3 November 2026. Observation year 2026. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.nea.gov.sg/dengue-zika/dengue/dengue-cases Cited in chapter 3, chapter 8
31. 31Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore (ed.), Singapore posts record port performance in 2025 and develops future readiness through industry collaborations for 2026 (media release of 13 January 2026). MPA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.mpa.gov.sg/media-centre/details/singapore-posts-record-port-performance-in-2025-and-develops-future-readiness-through-industry-collaborations-for-2026 Cited in chapter 6
32. 32Cyber Security Agency of Singapore (ed.), Singapore Cyber Landscape 2025/2026 (publication page, released 30 June 2026; the full report was not read, so no incident counts are used). CSA, Singapore. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.csa.gov.sg/resources/publications/singapore-cyber-landscape-2025-2026/ Cited in chapter 3, chapter 6
33. 33Government of Singapore (ed.), Singapore Green Plan 2030 (national sustainability plan page). Singapore Green Plan Office. Observation year as published, not dated on the page. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.greenplan.gov.sg/ Cited in chapter 6
34. 34POST-CLOSE, context only: H. Lee and J. Romero (eds.), Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the IPCC. IPCC, Geneva, 2023. doi:10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647. Observation year 2023. Bibliographic record opened through Crossref on 3 November 2026; the report text was not read. doi:10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647 Cited in chapter 6
35. 35POST-CLOSE, context only: P. D. McElwee, P. A. Harrison, T. L. van Huysen et al. (eds.), IPBES Nexus Assessment: Thematic Assessment Report on the Interlinkages among Biodiversity, Water, Food and Health. IPBES secretariat, Bonn, 2024. doi:10.5281/zenodo.13850054. Observation year 2024. Bibliographic record opened through DataCite on 3 November 2026; the report text was not read. doi:10.5281/zenodo.13850054 Cited in chapter 6
36. 36POST-CLOSE, context only: J. Zscheischler, S. Westra, B. J. J. M. van den Hurk et al., “Future climate risk from compound events,” Nature Climate Change, vol. 8, pp. 469–477, 2018. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0156-3. Observation year 2018. Bibliographic record opened through Crossref on 3 November 2026; the article text was not read. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0156-3 Cited in chapter 3, chapter 6
37. 37POST-CLOSE, context only: K. Ng, G. G. Garner, S. Weeks, P. Hogarth, M. Palmer et al., “Robust Sea-Level Projections for Singapore by 2100 and 2150,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, vol. 130, 2025. doi:10.1029/2024JC021840. Observation year 2025. Bibliographic record opened through Crossref on 3 November 2026; the article text was not read and its figures are not used. doi:10.1029/2024JC021840 Cited in chapter 3, chapter 6
38. 38POST-CLOSE, context only: J. Koplitz, L. J. Mickley, M. E. Marlier et al., “Public health impacts of the severe haze in Equatorial Asia in September–October 2015,” Environmental Research Letters, vol. 11, 094023, 2016. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/9/094023. Observation year 2015. Bibliographic record opened through Crossref on 3 November 2026; the article text was not read. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/9/094023 Cited in chapter 6
39. 39UNVERIFIED, not opened: Centre for Climate Research Singapore (ed.), Singapore’s Third National Climate Change Study (V3) climate projections. Meteorological Service Singapore, 2024. Observation year 2024 (release year taken from press coverage). The sea-level range used in this edition is quoted from [26], not from this study. Cited in chapter 6
40. 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Parks Board (ed.), nature reserves and nature areas of Singapore (agency page). NParks, Singapore. Source for a designed gap; the agency page returned an error at evidence close. Observation year none bound. Cited in chapter 8
41. 41UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Parks Board (ed.), Singapore’s national biodiversity targets submitted to the Convention on Biological Diversity, October 2024. NParks, Singapore. Known from a press report only; the official document was not read. Observation year 2024. Cited in chapter 8
42. 42UNVERIFIED, not opened: Infocomm Media Development Authority (ed.), Green Data Centre Roadmap. IMDA, Singapore, 2024. The agency page did not render at evidence close. Observation year 2024. Cited in chapter 1, chapter 6, chapter 8
43. 43UNVERIFIED, not opened: Energy Market Authority (ed.), Singapore’s Energy Story (national energy transition, solar and hydrogen goals). EMA, Singapore. Known from search results only. Observation year as published, not bound. Cited in chapter 6
44. 44UNVERIFIED, not opened: Government of Singapore (ed.), Carbon Pricing Act 2018. Singapore Statutes Online. The statute site returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year 2018 (enactment). Cited in chapter 6
45. 45UNVERIFIED, not opened: Government of Singapore (ed.), Cybersecurity Act 2018. Singapore Statutes Online. Not opened at evidence close. Observation year 2018 (enactment). Cited in chapter 6
46. 46UNVERIFIED, not opened: UNFCCC (ed.), Paris Agreement. United Nations, Paris, 2015. The treaty page returned no text at evidence close. Observation year 2015. Cited in chapter 6
47. 47UNVERIFIED, not opened: UNDRR (ed.), Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. UNDRR, Geneva, 2015. Observation year 2015. Cited in chapter 6
48. 48UNVERIFIED, not opened: Convention on Biological Diversity (ed.), Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, Decision 15/4. CBD Secretariat, Montreal, 2022. Observation year 2022. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 6, chapter 8
49. 49UNVERIFIED, not opened: United Nations Environment Programme (ed.), Emissions Gap Report 2025. UNEP, Nairobi, 2025. The agency page returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year 2025. Cited in chapter 6
50. 50UNVERIFIED, not opened: UNDRR (ed.), Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2025. UNDRR, Geneva, 2025. The agency page returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year 2025. Cited in chapter 6
51. 51UNVERIFIED, not opened: WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (eds.), Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2024. WHO and UNICEF, Geneva and New York, 2025. Source behind the World Bank access series; the country file was not read. Observation year 2024. Cited in chapter 8
52. 52UNVERIFIED, not opened: PUB, Singapore’s National Water Agency (ed.), drainage, flood-prone area and reservoir records. PUB, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; the agency site returned a 403 error at evidence close. Observation year none bound. Cited in the summary, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
53. 53UNVERIFIED, not opened: Ministry of Health (ed.), national health statistics and heat-illness records. MOH, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
54. 54UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Environment Agency (ed.), haze and Pollutant Standards Index records. NEA, Singapore. Source for a designed gap; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound. Cited in chapter 8
55. 55UNVERIFIED, not opened: Singapore Department of Statistics (ed.), statistical releases and Singapore in Figures. SingStat, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound. Cited in the summary, chapter 4
56. 56UNVERIFIED, not opened: Monetary Authority of Singapore (ed.), Singapore-Asia Taxonomy for Sustainable Finance and insurance sector records. MAS, Singapore. Source for designed gaps; not retrieved at evidence close. Observation year none bound. Cited in chapter 6
57. 57UNVERIFIED, not opened: S. Valadbaygi (ed.), Reports: The Foundational Edition, Volumes I and II. Reports series, Edition 2026–2030, V1.0. GCRI for the Nexus Consortium, Toronto, 2026. Internal programme record, not re-read for this edition. Observation year 2026.
58. 58UNVERIFIED, not opened: S. Valadbaygi (ed.), Global Systems Risk & Resilience Report 2026: Baseline Edition. GCRI for the Nexus Consortium, Toronto, 2026. Internal programme record, not re-read for this edition. Observation year 2026.
59. 59National Environment Agency (ed.), dengue case counts for 2025: 3,990 cases as at 26 December 2025 and 13,651 cases in 2024, as reported by The Star (ANN/Straits Times) from NEA data, published 28 December 2025. Secondary report of the NEA series; the NEA page itself was not opened for 2025. Observation year 2025. Accessed 3 November 2026. https://www.thestar.com.my/aseanplus/aseanplus-news/2025/12/28/dengue-cases-in-singapore-hit-a-seven-year-low-in-2025-amid-global-decrease Cited in chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 6, chapter 8

C.2Publication record

Colophon

Format

A4 portrait · screen, print and archival PDF

Typefaces

Space Grotesk (display) · Geist (text) · IBM Plex Sans Italic (standfirsts) · IBM Plex Mono (data)

Design standard

Reports Foundational Edition, Volume I, Part VII

Accessibility

tagged PDF and HTML targets; text alternatives for every figure

Production

Reports editorial team, GCRI

Release path for this version