GCRI · 海洋与海岸
海平面与沿海洪水
Sea level is rising as oceans warm and land ice melts, and coastal floods that were once rare are becoming frequent. Extreme sea levels combine mean sea level, tides, 风暴潮 and waves, and local land subsidence can add as much as the global rise. This page sets out how coastal flooding develops, how extreme sea levels and projections are estimated, and what evidence serves the authorities planning coasts for decades ahead.
Sea level and coastal flood: how the risk develops.
Shoreline exposure and changing sea levels. The dossier below sets out how the risk develops, what is measured, where the data come from, how it is modelled and who decides.
Warming and melting raise the sea
Thermal expansion of seawater and melting glaciers and ice sheets raise global mean sea level. The rise continues for centuries after warming stops, and ice sheet loss is the largest uncertainty.
Land movement changes local rise
Subsidence from groundwater extraction, sediment compaction and tectonics makes the sea rise faster relative to the land in many deltas and coastal cities.
Extremes ride on the mean
风暴潮, high tides and waves come on top of mean sea level. A modest rise in the mean makes today’s rare extreme levels occur far more often.
Coastal systems respond
Beaches erode, wetlands may migrate or drown, and saltwater intrudes into aquifers and rivers. Defences shift flooding elsewhere and can fail when overtopped.
Water now in Pacific Island states.
Marine heat, rain and flood water over Pacific Island states, from NASA GIBS. Each layer carries its own date.
交互式地图需要JavaScript；图层列表和来源见下文。
图层 3
本页面的当前水情
关于本图层
关于本图层
- 证据
- 估计值
- 来源
- GPM IMERG（NASA GES DISC）
- 提供方
- NASA GES DISC
- 许可协议
- NASA 开放数据
- 年份版本
- 每日；近实时卫星估算
- 构建时的最新内容
- 2026-10-12
- 处理结果
- 约 2 公里网格
- 不确定性
- 近实时卫星估算。卫星或模型栅格数据，按提供方发布的原样呈现。云层、条带缺口和反演误差会造成缺口和噪声；数值是指标，而非某地的测量值。
- 经由以下途径到达
- gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov，仅在您允许实时地图后访问
关于本图层
- 证据
- 观测（云层造成缺口）
- 来源
- VIIRS 全球洪水产品（NASA LANCE）
- 提供方
- NASA LANCE
- 许可协议
- NASA 开放数据
- 年份版本
- 每日；卫星探测；云层造成缺口
- 构建时的最新内容
- 2026-10-14
- 处理结果
- 约 250 米网格
- 不确定性
- 卫星探测；云层造成缺口。卫星或模型栅格数据，按提供方发布的原样呈现。云层、条带缺口和反演误差会造成缺口和噪声；数值是指标，而非某地的测量值。
- 经由以下途径到达
- gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov，仅在您允许实时地图后访问
关于本图层
- 证据
- 观测
- 来源
- VIIRS NOAA-20 校正反射率（NASA LANCE）
- 提供方
- NASA LANCE
- 许可协议
- NASA 开放数据
- 年份版本
- 每日；卫星图像
- 构建时的最新内容
- 2026-10-14
- 处理结果
- 约 250 米网格
- 不确定性
- 卫星图像。卫星或模型栅格数据，按提供方发布的原样呈现。云层、条带缺口和反演误差会造成缺口和噪声；数值是指标，而非某地的测量值。
- 经由以下途径到达
- gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov，仅在您允许实时地图后访问
关于本图层
- 证据
- 观测
- 来源
- GHRSST MUR（NASA JPL PO.DAAC）
- 提供方
- NASA JPL PO.DAAC
- 许可协议
- NASA 开放数据
- 年份版本
- 每日；卫星分析
- 构建时的最新内容
- 2026-10-12
- 处理结果
- 约 1 公里网格
- 不确定性
- 所示日期海表温度的补缺卫星分析；不是珊瑚礁或物种状况报告。
- 经由以下途径到达
- gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov，仅在您允许实时地图后访问
关于本图层
- 证据
- 观测（云层和太阳耀斑造成缺口）
- 来源
- MODIS Aqua 海洋水色（NASA OB.DAAC）
- 提供方
- NASA OB.DAAC
- 许可协议
- NASA 开放数据
- 年份版本
- 每日；卫星反演；云层和太阳耀斑造成缺口
- 构建时的最新内容
- 2026-10-13
- 处理结果
- 约 1 公里网格
- 不确定性
- 所示日期海面附近叶绿素 a 的卫星估算值，是浮游生物和海洋生产力的指标；不衡量渔业资源或有害藻华。
- 经由以下途径到达
- gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov，仅在您允许实时地图后访问
键盘操作，地图获得焦点时
按住 Ctrl 或 ⌘ 并滚动以缩放
最新可用
NASA GIBS / EOSDIS · ASTER GDEM (METI, NASA) · Blue Marble (NASA) · © OpenStreetMap贡献者 (ODbL) · Natural Earth
正在加载最新的NASA影像。
拖动以移动。按住 Ctrl 或 ⌘ 并滚动、双指缩放或使用按钮缩放；悬停可查看指针下的数值；重置可返回该区域。
Water now, framed on Pacific Island states.NASA 发布的卫星和模型产品，各带自己的日期。它们是指标，而非对任何地点的评估。
数据：NASA GIBS · ASTER GDEM · Blue Marble · © OpenStreetMap 贡献者 · Natural Earth · NASA EONET · NASA GPM IMERG Early · NASA JPL OPERA DIST-ALERT来源与许可
- We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS). Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). NASA 开放数据
- We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS). Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). NASA 开放数据
- GHRSST Level 4 MUR 分析，NASA 喷气推进实验室；由 NASA 物理海洋学 DAAC（PO.DAAC）分发；影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘；显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均（经修改）。 NASA 开放数据
- GPM IMERG 降水，NASA 降水处理系统；由 NASA 戈达德地球科学数据和信息服务中心（GES DISC）分发；影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘；显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均（经修改）。 NASA 开放数据
- VIIRS 近实时产品（洪水、地表温度、积雪覆盖、校正反射率），NASA LANCE；影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘；显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均（经修改）。 NASA 开放数据
- MODIS Aqua 海洋水色，NASA 海洋生物处理组；由 NASA Ocean Biology DAAC（OB.DAAC）分发；影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘；显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均（经修改）。 NASA 开放数据
- ASTER GDEM 是 METI 和 NASA 的产品（ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model V003，NASA LP DAAC）；影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘；显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均（经修改）。引用格式：NASA/METI/AIST/Japan Spacesystems and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team (2019). ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model V003. doi:10.5067/ASTER/ASTGTM.003. NASA 开放数据
- 使用 Natural Earth 制作。免费矢量和栅格地图数据，见 naturalearthdata.com。 公有领域
- © OpenStreetMap 贡献者（ODbL），经由 NASA GIBS（海岸线、边界、道路和地名）。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘；显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均（经修改）。 ODbL
- Blue Marble，NASA Earth Observatory；影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘；显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均（经修改）。 NASA 开放数据
- 地球仪和平面地图上的背景信息：海岸线、边界、道路和地名来自 NASA GIBS 参考图层（OpenStreetMap 数据，ODbL，© OpenStreetMap contributors）；Blue Marble 影像可作为可选底图；3D 地形和高程读数来自 ASTER GDEM 高程色彩指数（5 m 至 200 m 分级，为便于辨识而作了夸张处理）。边界按已发布的样式绘制，不代表对任何领土的立场。
- 实时事件：NASA Earth Observatory Natural Event Tracker（EONET）；事件仅供参考，并保留其原始来源链接。
- 实时：NASA EONET。事件仅供参考，不是主管机构的预警。
- Live: NASA GPM IMERG Early. We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS).
- Observed (EO): NASA JPL OPERA DIST-ALERT (contains modified Copernicus Sentinel data 2026). We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS).
- NASA GIBS: We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS).
- 河流流量预报，30天及区间（GloFAS，经Open-Meteo）：包含经修改的Copernicus Emergency Management Service 2026年信息；非洪水警报。
- 过去一年的每日气温（ERA5，经由 Open-Meteo）：包含经修改的 Copernicus 气候变化服务 2026 年信息。
- 过去一年的每日气温和日照（NASA POWER）：这些数据来自 NASA 兰利研究中心（LaRC）POWER 项目，该项目由 NASA 地球科学/应用科学计划资助。
- 天气数据来自 Open-Meteo.com (https://open-meteo.com/), 依据 CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 授权。
- 可选图层（图层列表中有 14 个来源：实时、预报、观测和背景）在开启时会在地图上和此处显示其提供方署名；预报是模型输出，派生指数是估计值。
图层与日期
- 海面温度距平：GHRSST MUR25，NASA JPL PO.DAAC · 2026年10月12日
- 降水率，日均值：GPM IMERG，NASA GES DISC · 2026年10月12日
- 洪水水体，3 日合成：VIIRS 全球洪水产品，NASA LANCE · 2026年10月14日
- 真彩色：VIIRS NOAA-20 校正反射率，NASA LANCE · 2026年10月13日
- 海面温度：GHRSST MUR，NASA JPL PO.DAAC · 2026年10月12日
- 海洋叶绿素 a 浓度：MODIS Aqua 海洋水色，NASA OB.DAAC · 2026年10月12日
Sea-level rise reaches every coastal domain.
Coastal flood analyses are designed for the 区域系统系列. The IPCC’s ocean and cryosphere report (2019) and AR6 Working Group I (2021) give projected ranges; tide gauge records come from the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level, and vertical datums are always stated.
- Tide gauge and land subsidence records.
- Surveyed coastal flood extents.
海岸适应路径。
团队跟踪该主题时会使用的界面：其指标、状态与决策。名称为示例，数值仅作示意。
沿海适应路径
Sea level and coastal flood · Coastal zone A · Sea level scenario set
按情景划分的洪水范围
示意海岸线
相对海平面
适应路径
| 沙丘补沙 | 0.4 | 2 | 加高海堤 | 5 年内两次漫顶 |
| 加高海堤 | 0.5 | 10 | 有管理的后退 | 海堤达到设计极限 |
| 有管理的后退 | 1.0 | 14 | 迁移资产 | 社区决定 |
衡量什么，以及衡量得如何。
每个指标都注明其单位、频率、背后的来源类型以及数值将附带的证据标签。此处不显示数值：数值由计划依据其自身权限提供。
| 指标 | 单位 | 节奏 | 来源类型 | 标签 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Relative sea-level trend | millimetres per year | 年度 | Tide gauges | 观测 |
| Global mean sea level | millimetres relative to a reference | 每月 | Satellite altimetry | 观测 |
| Extreme sea level at a 重现期 | metres above a datum | per analysis | Extreme value analysis of tide gauge records | 估算 |
| High-tide flood days | days per year | 年度 | Tide gauges and flood thresholds | 观测 |
| Vertical land motion | millimetres per year | per analysis | GNSS and radar interferometry | 观测 |
| Projected 海平面上升 | metres by a stated year and scenario | 每次评估 | IPCC AR6 projections | 模型生成 |
| Population in the low-elevation coastal zone | people | 每次评估 | Elevation and population grids | 估算 |
Route a storm through a river network.
Rain becomes runoff by the curve number method, drains each sub-catchment through a linear reservoir and travels down the main stem by Muskingum routing; play it to watch the flood wave move and flatten. Teaching model with stated illustrative values, not a prediction. The map on this page shows Pacific Island states; the model itself is not tied to a place.
控制措施
- Storm rainfall depth
- 120 mm
- Storm duration
- 12 h
- Curve number (soil and land cover)
- 78
- Catchment area
- 800 km²
- Reaches on the main stem
- 5
- Travel time per reach (Muskingum K)
- 6.0 h
- Muskingum X (storage weighting)
- 0.20
- Channel capacity per unit area
- 300 L/s per km²
读数
- Peak discharge at the outlet
- 452 m³/s
- Time to peak
- 21.6 h
- Attenuation by the channel
- 61%
- Hours over capacity
- 26.4 h
- Runoff coefficient
- 52%
数字、方法与来源
| Hour | Outlet (m³/s) | Unrouted (m³/s) | Upper reach (m³/s) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2.4 | 0.0 | 678.9 | 0.0 |
| 12.0 | 308.3 | 1,151.4 | 181.8 |
| 21.6 | 452.4 | 35.1 | 73.7 |
| 31.2 | 363.3 | 1.1 | 11.1 |
| 40.8 | 198.8 | 0.0 | 1.5 |
| 50.4 | 79.3 | 0.0 | 0.2 |
| 60.0 | 25.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 69.6 | 6.9 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 79.2 | 1.7 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 88.8 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 98.4 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 108.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 117.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 127.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 136.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
方法
- Curve number runoff USDA Soil Conservation Service (1972), National Engineering Handbook, Section 4: Hydrology
- Linear reservoir Nash (1957), The form of the instantaneous unit hydrograph, IAHS 45
- Muskingum channel routing McCarthy (1938); Cunge (1969), Journal of Hydraulic Research 7
- 不确定性扇形图（参数蒙特卡罗） Spiegelhalter, Pearson and Short (2011), Visualising uncertainty about the future, Science 333
- 单因素敏感性（龙卷风图） Saltelli and others (2008), Global Sensitivity Analysis: The Primer, Wiley
数据
The model runs on the teaching values set by the controls. To calibrate it for a place, read it against these admitted layers and series, which this page’s map can draw:
- 河流 Natural Earth
- Lakes and reservoirs Natural Earth
- 城市 Natural Earth
- 降雨率，最近半小时（IMERG） NASA GPM IMERG Early · 登记 nasa.gibs.context-live-layers
- 河流流量预报，30 天及范围（GloFAS via Open-Meteo） Open-Meteo.com（CC BY 4.0）、Copernicus GloFAS · 登记 open-meteo.public-pages
- Surface soil moisture (SMAP) NASA SMAP · register nasa.gibs.context-live-layers
- Surface water, 30 m (OPERA DSWx-HLS) NASA JPL OPERA DSWx-HLS (contains modified Copernicus Sentinel data 2026) · register nasa.gibs.context-live-layers
- Surface water through cloud, 30 m (OPERA DSWx-S1 radar) NASA JPL OPERA DSWx-S1 (contains modified Copernicus Sentinel-1 data 2026) · register nasa.gibs.context-live-layers
贯穿六大支柱，由 Nexus Consortium 牵头
- 实验 实验室
- 构建于 Foundry 中的海洋与海岸
- 检验地点 Universe 中的海洋与海岸
- 编入 Standards 中的气候与地球系统
- 发表于 Reports 中的海洋与海岸
- 授课于 Academy 中的地球与环境科学学院
证据来自何处。
具名公共数据集与机构记录，各自注明许可类别。依协议获得的来源仅按其条款使用，绝不再次发布。
| 来源 | 它提供什么 | 许可类别 |
|---|---|---|
| Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (PSMSL) | Monthly and annual mean sea level from tide gauges worldwide | Free with citation, PSMSL terms |
| GESLA global extreme sea level archive | High-frequency tide gauge records for extremes | Free with citation, licence per contributor (to check) |
| Copernicus Marine Service sea level products | Satellite altimetry sea level and anomalies | Free, Copernicus Marine licence |
| IPCC AR6 sea level projection tool (NASA) | Regional sea-level projections by scenario | Open, NASA data policy |
| NOAA tides and currents data | Water levels, high-tide flooding outlooks and datums for US stations | Public domain, US government data |
| Copernicus DEM and other global elevation models | Coastal elevation for exposure analysis | Free, licence per product (to check) |
Model Sea level and coastal flood as a system. Run the cascade.
Assembled from the Nexus Standards area profile 海洋与海岸风险标准: the hazards it names, the 系统 and sectors that carry the loss, the controls that dampen it and the data that observe it. Choose the components, pick an initiating hazard and step through the cascade. The Map view places the run on an example geography with open data. Every coupling weight is a stated assumption you can change. A teaching model, not a forecast, an assessment or a certification. To model a place of your own choosing, open the full System Builder.
灾害
- 海平面上升
- 风暴潮
- Coastal erosion
- 热浪
- Ocean acidification
- Harmful algal bloom
- 极端火险天气（在下游引发）
- 野火 （在下游引发）
- 高温导致的电网压力（在下游引发）
- 农业干旱（在下游引发）
- 骤发干旱（在下游引发）
- 积雪干旱（在下游引发）
- 近地面臭氧事件（在下游引发）
- Meteorological drought (set off downstream)
- 河流洪水（在下游引发）
- 沿海洪水（在下游引发）
- Estuary flood (set off downstream)
- 大规模流离失所（在下游引发）
系统与耦合
- 海洋与海岸风险标准
- 供应链与贸易风险 级联
- 粮食与农业风险标准 级联
- 气候风险标准 Common driver and feedback
- 城市与城市系统风险标准 风险暴露
控制措施
NS-0章程与原则NS-1维持社会运转的 UNI 与制品目录（语法 v0.2：领域、部门、区域和环境分段）NS-3风险记录 UNI（语法、旧编码对照、分配机构）NS-3b数据集与产品元数据规范（STAC、DCAT、PROV-O）NS-5图表、地图和可视化标准（配合 UI/UX 套件）NS-9情境 UNI（部署、实例、计划实例）NS-11验证与监测（证据、证明、零信任符合性观测）NRS-X3海洋与海岸风险NRS-H11危害类别：沿海与海平面危害（NHS-1 water.coastal）NRS-H79危害类别：精神卫生危机（NHS-1 health.mental）NRS-H12危害类别：海况极端事件（NHS-1 water.ocean-state）NRS-H67危害类别：海洋环流与海洋临界点（NHS-1 planet.ocean-tipping）NRS-K18领域包概况：海洋与海岸（DOMAIN-018）
观测
- Copernicus Marine Service ocean products (listed for reference)
- Coral Reef Watch daily 5 km heat stress products (listed for reference)
- PSMSL tide gauge mean sea level records (listed for reference)
- GEBCO global bathymetric grid (listed for reference)
- Argo float profiles (listed for reference)
- Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations
- Index of coastal eutrophication and floating plastic debris density
- Direct economic loss attributed to disasters in relation to GDP, including damage to critical infrastructure
示例地理范围
- 太平洋岛国：150 个六边形网格
- 今夜夜间灯光与停电（VIIRS 昼夜波段），NASA GIBS
- 穿透云层的地表水，30 m（OPERA DSWx-S1 雷达），NASA GIBS
- 过去半小时降雨率（IMERG），NASA GIBS
- 白天地表气温（AIRS），NASA GIBS
由谁决定，以及证据服务于什么。
Oceans and Coasts prepares evidence. The decisions below are taken by the authorities named, under their own rules, and never by the platform.
| 谁来决定 | 问题 | 本页面服务的证据 |
|---|---|---|
| Coastal and flood defence authorities | What standard of protection to build and when to raise it | Extreme sea levels; projections; land motion |
| Spatial planning authorities | Where to restrict development or plan retreat | Exposure maps by scenario |
| Port and infrastructure owners | Which design sea levels to adopt for long-lived assets | Projections with ranges stated |
| 水务公用事业 | How to protect aquifers and intakes from saltwater | Sea-level and intrusion evidence |
该主题产生的产出
- Extreme sea-level analyses with record length and uncertainty stated
- Relative sea-level projections combining global projections and land motion
- Coastal flood exposure maps by 重现期 and scenario
- Evidence notes for shoreline and adaptation planning
选择背景
部门 · 沿海风暴潮压力
支柱 · 沿海风暴潮KPI
在此背景之中依赖或移交关系，越粗越强不在此背景之内
计划年度所有阶段
背景
沿海风暴潮
红树林和沙丘可以吸收风暴潮；它们消失之处，港口、变电站和取水口就会首当其冲。
W · E · I · F · H · B
风险
- 部门
- 5 共 6
- 关系
- 10 共 15
- 耦合
- 0.64 占总量份额
将鼠标悬停在某个角、某条线或某一行上，可在两侧追踪其走向。
路径
应用于沿海风暴潮
L · F · U · S · R · A
响应
- 支柱
- 5 共 6
- 交接
- 12 共 18
- 回路
- 8 已关闭
期望值
- 利害所在
- $390B每年至少，低收入和中等收入国家的家庭和企业承担的基础设施中断成本世界银行，《Lifelines》，2019 年
- 韧性回报
- 4 : 1效益成本比世界银行，《Lifelines》，2019 年
- 避免的损失
- $80B每年避免的洪水损失全球适应委员会，《Adapt Now》，2019 年
将鼠标悬停在支柱、线条或行上，查看其应用方式。
A：基于典型城市区域教学用值的教学级联（冲击 0.6，增益 0.35，四轮），并非实测值。B：示意性应用及每个支柱所负责的关键绩效指标；数值为已发布并注明出处的基准，并非预测。开放事件：NASA EONET，实时。
专家提出的问题。
- How much will relative sea level change at this location, including vertical land motion?
- How often will a given flood height be reached now and in future decades?
- How do surge, tide, waves and river flow combine during an event?
- Which assets, people and ecosystems are exposed, and how will exposure shift as the shoreline moves?
- How should the 深度不确定性 in ice-sheet contributions be represented in planning?
How Sea level and coastal flood is modelled, measured and tested.
模型、其假设、数据和不确定性，以科学家或工程师会核查的形式呈现。结构遵循已发表的方法。所取数值仅为示意，不是研究发现。
地球观测链
How a satellite or sensor record becomes evidence on sea level and coastal flood, and where each step adds uncertainty.
- 01 · 获取轨道、传感器和重访周期不确定性：云层和轨道造成的缺口
- 02 · 校准辐射和几何不确定性：传感器漂移
- 03 · 更正大气与地形不确定性：气溶胶和坡度假设
- 04 · 检索或分类变量或类别不确定性：模型和训练误差
- 05 · 验证对照地面实况不确定性：样本设计与规模
- 06 · 发布附误差线和沿袭信息不确定性：明确说明，从不隐藏
How seas rise and coasts flood.
Global mean sea level rises mainly through thermal expansion of warming water and through the loss of land ice from glaciers and the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. Regional sea level departs from the global mean because of ocean circulation, the gravitational and rotational effects of where ice is lost, and vertical land motion from tectonics, glacial rebound and subsidence. In many deltas and coastal cities, subsidence from groundwater and hydrocarbon extraction and sediment compaction is a large part of relative 海平面上升.
Extreme water levels arise when 风暴潮, driven by wind and low pressure, coincides with high tide and large waves, and when rivers carry high flows to the coast. As the baseline rises, a flood height that was once rare is reached more often, and the shoreline itself retreats where sediment supply cannot keep pace.
Observation, statistics and models.
Tide gauges and altimetry
Long tide-gauge records and satellite altimetry measure sea level; GNSS measures land motion. Gauges are sparse in many regions.
Extreme value analysis
Return levels are estimated from observed maxima; short records and changing baselines widen the uncertainty.
Hydrodynamic and inundation
Surge and wave models drive inundation maps; results depend strongly on the accuracy of coastal elevation data.
Limits: ice-sheet processes add deep uncertainty to late-century projections, and coastal elevation models can misstate flood extent where vegetation or buildings bias the terrain. Flood maps should state their scenario, time horizon, datum and resolution.
如何研究，以及方法无法说明的内容。
Where this page’s references lead.
阅读本页时所对照的机构和文件。状态和版本会变化；每个链接都指向发布机构。
问题与解答。
Why does sea level rise differ from place to place?
What is an extreme sea level?
How much will sea level rise?
Is a flood map a prediction of where water will go next time?
Why do local projections differ from global ones?
Does the platform publish flood maps for specific places?
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