- Advanced Energy Storage 2026
- Annex C
References and record
Every source the edition rests on, the publication record, the corrections log and the open record.
Contents
- ·Edition home
- ·Executive summary
- 1Storage is grid infrastructure and a supply chain
- 2Key findings
- 3Systems and sectors at baseline
- 4Risks and capability
- 5Grid dependence on batteries while supply is restricted
- 6Readings from the other desks
- 7The 2027 agenda
- 8Systems in depth
- AMethodology
- BData appendix
- CReferences and record
- ·Complete edition, for print
C.148 sources
NR-CIT-1, editor first. A DOI is linked where the source has one; Nexus records carry a UNI once the catalogue allocates it (NS-1).
- 1IEA (ed.), Global Energy Review 2026, section Technology: Battery storage (108 GW of new battery storage deployed in 2025, 40% more than in 2024; about 80% utility-scale; lithium iron phosphate about 90% of deployments; China about 60% of additions; battery-based UPS additions up 30% to 45 GW). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 2IRENA (ed.), Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025, 2026 (installed cost of four-hour utility-scale battery storage about USD 140 per kWh, down close to 30%; total installed cost by storage technology; solar paired with batteries). International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 6, chapter 7, chapter 8
- 3US Energy Information Administration (ed.), Battery storage capacity averaged 70% growth over the last three years, Today in Energy, 7 August 2026 (43.6 GW at the end of 2025; nearly 52 GW at mid-2026; planned additions to 2028). EIA, Washington. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6
- 4Ember (ed.), Global Electricity Review 2026, 21 April 2026 (battery costs down 45% in 2025 after 20% in 2024; deployment up 46% to an estimated 250 GWh; 14% of new solar generation shifted). Ember, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 5USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lithium (world mine production 2025, end uses, prices, reserves). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 6USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo share, export quotas 2026 and 2027, import reliance). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 7USGS (ed.), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural) (China share of production, anode material imports, preliminary duties). US Geological Survey, Reston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 8IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (revised version, July 2026; concentration of refining, lithium price rise from January 2025 to April 2026, China export controls of 9 October 2025, LFP share of battery energy storage). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 5, chapter 6, chapter 7, chapter 8
- 9Wanner, B. (IEA), Batteries and Secure Energy Transitions, presentation slides, Energy Storage Summit, London, 18 February 2025 (slides summarising the IEA special report of 2024; storage capacity needed for tripled renewables; stated policies battery additions to 2030; lithium demand measures). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6, chapter 8
- 10European Parliament and Council, Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (full text; battery passport from 18 February 2027; safety of stationary battery energy storage systems, Article 12; recycled content targets). Official Journal of the European Union, Luxembourg. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 11European Commission (ed.), Batteries (policy page; Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 in force 17 August 2023, applies from 18 February 2024; Delegated Regulation (EU) 2025/606 of 4 July 2025 on recycling efficiency). Directorate-General for Environment, Brussels. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 12IEA (ed.), Global EV Outlook 2026, launch webinar slides, 20 May 2026 (electric cars 25% of sales in 2025, 28% forecast for 2026; battery pack price declines in China). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 13Form Energy (ed.), Battery technology page (iron-air system described as able to discharge for up to 100 hours). Vendor statement, weak evidence, not independently tested. Form Energy, Somerville. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 14Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Moss Landing Power Plant (fire of 16 January 2025; 300 MW and 1,200 MWh phase; about 1,200 residents evacuated). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in the summary, chapter 1, chapter 2, chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 7, chapter 8
- 15Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Battery storage power station (national capacities, cost series, incident trend, as reported from cited sources). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.
- 16Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Grid energy storage (pumped storage and battery capacity in 2023 from an IEA dataset). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 8
- 17Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (round-trip efficiency of 70 to 80%; world capacity about 200 GW in 2025 attributed to the hydropower association). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 8
- 18Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Sodium-ion battery (energy density figures; producer announcements of 2025; cost claims marked as needing update). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 8
- 19Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Lithium iron phosphate battery (energy density, cycle life, market share reports). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 8
- 20Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Flow battery (vanadium system of 100 MW and 400 MWh in Dalian, 2022). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2022. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 8
- 21Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Compressed-air energy storage (Huntorf, McIntosh and Zhangjiakou plants). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2022. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 8
- 22Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Hornsdale Power Reserve (150 MW and 193.5 MWh; grid service claims from cited sources). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.
- 23Wikipedia contributors (eds.), List of energy storage power plants (largest battery plants by energy capacity). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.
- 24Wikipedia contributors (eds.), Cobalt (Democratic Republic of the Congo production share quoted at different values from cited sources). Secondary summary, weak evidence. Wikimedia Foundation, San Francisco. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 2, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 25UNVERIFIED, not opened: EPRI (ed.), Battery Energy Storage System Failure Incident Database (the page returned no data; incident rate figures seen only in a secondary summary). Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6
- 26UNVERIFIED, not opened: US Department of Energy (ed.), Long Duration Storage Shot, launched 2021, cited from memory; the page address returned not found. US Department of Energy, Washington. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 27UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Renewable Energy Laboratory (ed.), Storage Futures Study, 2021, cited from memory; the host was not reachable. NREL, Golden. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 28UNVERIFIED, not opened: BloombergNEF (ed.), Energy Storage System Cost Survey 2025, cited only as the source of the series reported by IRENA; not opened. BloombergNEF, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 29UNVERIFIED, not opened: Lazard (ed.), Levelized Cost of Energy Plus, 2025 edition, cited from memory. Lazard, New York. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 30UNVERIFIED, not opened: UL Standards and Engagement (ed.), UL 9540, Energy Storage Systems and Equipment, third edition 2023, cited from memory; the catalogue page showed no document text. UL, Northbrook. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 31UNVERIFIED, not opened: UL Standards and Engagement (ed.), UL 9540A, Test Method for Evaluating Thermal Runaway Fire Propagation in Battery Energy Storage Systems, cited from memory. UL, Northbrook. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 32UNVERIFIED, not opened: National Fire Protection Association (ed.), NFPA 855, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Energy Storage Systems, 2023 edition, cited from memory; the page showed only the title. NFPA, Quincy. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 33UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Electrotechnical Commission (ed.), IEC 62619:2022, Safety requirements for secondary lithium cells and batteries for use in industrial applications, cited from memory. IEC, Geneva. Observation year 2022. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6
- 34UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Electrotechnical Commission (ed.), IEC 63056:2020, Safety requirements for secondary lithium cells and batteries for use in electrical energy storage systems, cited from memory. IEC, Geneva. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 35UNVERIFIED, not opened: United Nations (ed.), Manual of Tests and Criteria, section 38.3, lithium metal and lithium ion batteries, cited from memory; the page returned an access error. United Nations, Geneva. Observation year 2023. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 36UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Electrotechnical Commission (ed.), IEC 62933-5-2, Electrical energy storage systems, safety requirements for grid-integrated systems, electrochemical-based systems, cited from memory. IEC, Geneva. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6
- 37UNVERIFIED, not opened: International Hydropower Association (ed.), World Hydropower Outlook 2025 (the page loaded but the report was not read; the 2025 pumped storage figure appears only in a secondary summary). IHA, London. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 38UNVERIFIED, not opened: Dunn, B., Kamath, H. and Tarascon, J.-M., Electrical energy storage for the grid: a battery of choices, Science 334, 928 to 935, 2011, cited from memory. Observation year 2011. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6
- 39UNVERIFIED, not opened: Schmidt, O. et al., Projecting the future levelized cost of electricity storage technologies, Joule 3, 81 to 100, 2019, cited from memory. Observation year 2019. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6
- 40UNVERIFIED, not opened: Albertus, P., Manser, J.S. and Litzelman, S., Long-duration electricity storage applications, economics, and technologies, Joule 4, 21 to 32, 2020, cited from memory. Observation year 2020. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 3, chapter 4, chapter 6
- 41UNVERIFIED, not opened: Sepulveda, N.A. et al., Design space for long-duration energy storage in decarbonised power systems, Nature Energy 6, 506 to 516, 2021, cited from memory. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6
- 42UNVERIFIED, not opened: Hunter, C.A. et al., Techno-economic analysis of long-duration energy storage and flexible power generation technologies to support high-variable renewable energy grids, Joule 5, 2077 to 2101, 2021, cited from memory. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 43UNVERIFIED, not opened: Armand, M. and Tarascon, J.-M., Building better batteries, Nature 451, 652 to 657, 2008, cited from memory. Observation year 2008. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 44UNVERIFIED, not opened: Goodenough, J.B. and Park, K.-S., The Li-ion rechargeable battery: a perspective, Journal of the American Chemical Society 135, 1167 to 1176, 2013, cited from memory. Observation year 2013. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 45UNVERIFIED, not opened: Larcher, D. and Tarascon, J.-M., Towards greener and more sustainable batteries for electrical energy storage, Nature Chemistry 7, 19 to 29, 2015, cited from memory. Observation year 2015. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 46UNVERIFIED, not opened: Feng, X. et al., Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles: a review, Energy Storage Materials 10, 246 to 267, 2018, cited from memory. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 6
- 47UNVERIFIED, not opened: CATL (ed.), announcement of the Naxtra sodium-ion battery brand, April 2025, known only from a secondary summary; the company news page was fetched but no article was read. Contemporary Amperex Technology, Ningde. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6, chapter 8
- 48UNVERIFIED, not opened: US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (ed.), Order No. 841, Electric Storage Participation in Markets Operated by Regional Transmission Organizations and Independent System Operators, February 2018, cited from memory. FERC, Washington. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03. Cited in chapter 4, chapter 6
C.2Publication record
Publication
- Title
- Exponential Technology Report 2026: Advanced Energy Storage, Baseline Edition
- Series
- Reports · Exponential Technology Series XT-16
- Edition
- Baseline Edition 2026 · inaugural annual
- Version
- v1.0.0 · draft for stewardship review
- Publication ID
- NR-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-v1.0.0
- Evidence close
- 30 September 2026
- Publication date
- October 2026
- DOI
- concept and version DOI at deposit
Publisher
- Publisher of record
- The Global Centre for Risk and Innovation (GCRI), for the Nexus Consortium
- Place
- Toronto
- Editor
- Saeed Valadbaygi, Chief Steward and Managing Editor
- Stewards
- GCRI · technical truth · the Global Risks Forum (GRF) · public meaning · the Global Risks Alliance (GRA) · capital meaning
- Licence
- text CC BY 4.0; data on the terms of each source
- Copyright
- © 2026 GCRI · Nexus Consortium
- Language
- English (en-GB) source edition
- Correspondence
- Registry correction pathway · editorial office
Colophon
- Format
- A4 portrait · screen, print and archival PDF
- Typefaces
- Space Grotesk (display) · Geist (text) · IBM Plex Sans Italic (standfirsts) · IBM Plex Mono (data)
- Design standard
- Reports Foundational Edition, Volume I, Part VII
- Accessibility
- tagged PDF and HTML targets; text alternatives for every figure
- Production
- Reports editorial team, GCRI
Release path for this version
| Step | What happens | When |
|---|---|---|
| Draft | editorial self-check complete at evidence close | October 2026 |
| Steward review | five passes on the exact draft (keys T · M · F · N) | Q4 2026 |
| Approval | publication authority approves the exact digest | before release |
| Deposit | concept and version DOI minted; registry pointer set | at release |
| Succession | the 2027 energy storage edition reports changes against this baseline | 2027 |
- Current version
- v1.0.0 draft, stewardship review
- Previous edition
- none, first edition of the series
- Next edition
- NR-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2027-v1.0.0
- Latest version
- resolve the concept DOI or the registry record
- Correction route
- Registry correction pathway
- Notice types
- erratum · addendum · supersession · withdrawal
C.3Corrections log
0correction notices. No edition has been released yet, so none can be corrected; the log below lists each edition’s current version.
| Edition | Version | Date | State | Change | Notice |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| XT-16 | NR-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-v1.0.0 | October 2026 | Draft | Baseline Edition 2026, inaugural annual edition, | None |
Notice types: erratum, addendum, supersession, withdrawal. A correction is a new version with a published notice; the earlier version stays resolvable, and no edition is ever edited in silence.
C.4Open record
This edition’s open record
- Publication ID
- NR-XTECH-STORAGE-GLOBAL-2026-BASELINE-v1.0.0
- Desk identifier and series alias
- NR-XTC-XT-16-2026-BL
- Collection
- None
- DOI
- Concept and version DOI at deposit, on Zenodo with DataCite metadata
- Versions
- Each correction is a new version (isNewVersionOf); the concept DOI resolves to the latest
- Bundle
- RO-Crate 1.2 with CITATION.cff, CodeMeta and PROV-O provenance; a signed manifest
- Licence
- CC BY 4.0 (SPDX CC-BY-4.0) for original material; metadata CC0 1.0
Credit and identity
- ORCID
- Your iD in the deposit and the contribution record; DataCite can then add the work to your ORCID record
- ROR
- Your organisation by its ROR identifier, never by a typed name alone
- CRediT
- Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Validation, Visualisation, Writing, review and editing
- Account
- None needed to contribute; never a password
Find and follow
Search the open indexes for Advanced Energy Storage; software is cited by its SWHID from Software Heritage, and a quantified scenario run is preregistered on OSF before it is run. Annotation is your choice: Hypothesis opens this page in its own viewer.
Mirrors and harvest
The DOI is canonical. At release each signed bundle is also given an IPFS content identifier and a bloxberg anchor as mirrors; both are listed in the record once they exist. Zenodo exposes every record over OAI-PMH, and reviews and endorsements can arrive through COAR Notify where the repository supports it.
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}C.5Where this edition sits among the six pillars
Foundry seals the evidence and Universe tests it; Reports publishes it; Standards takes its corrections and Academy teaches from it.
- F03 Sealed observations and indicator series Foundry Sealed observations and indicator series behind a profile (closeout).
- F04 After-action and scenario findings for Universe After-action and scenario findings for chapters 10 and 13 (after action review).
- F05 National Portfolio movement for chapter Foundry National Portfolio movement for chapter 11 (after action review).
- Applied in editions Standards Nexus Standards: applied in editions.
- XT-16 edition Reports Advanced Energy Storage 2026, published in every format with its sources, citation and corrections.
- F06 Method and correction findings as change Standards Method and correction findings as change proposals (correction).
- F12 Q4 synthesis informs the next-year Universe Q4 synthesis informs the next-year mandate (renewal).
- Taught in the open Academy Risk Academy: taught in the open.
What Foundry and Universe hand to this edition, and what it hands to Standards, Universe and Academy. From the programme spine; XT-16 is a drafted Baseline Edition, so these handoffs run from its first operational quarter.
| Handoff | Between | What crosses, and when |
|---|---|---|
| F03 | Foundry to Reports | Sealed observations and indicator series behind a profile (closeout). |
| F04 | Universe to Reports | After-action and scenario findings for chapters 10 and 13 (after action review). |
| F05 | Foundry to Reports | National Portfolio movement for chapter 11 (after action review). |
| Ring | Nexus Standards to Reports | Nexus Standards: applied in editions. |
| F06 | Reports to Nexus Standards | Method and correction findings as change proposals (correction). |
| F12 | Reports to Universe | Q4 synthesis informs the next-year mandate (renewal). |
| Ring | Reports to Risk Academy | Risk Academy: taught in the open. |