Systems in depth
One section per system: its state at evidence close, its exposures and what the operational series will watch.
Contents
- ·Edition home
- ·Executive summary
- 1Additive manufacturing is production infrastructure that is still being qualified
- 2Key findings
- 3Systems and sectors at baseline
- 4Risks and capability
- 5Defence demand outruns part acceptance and supply
- 6Readings from the other desks
- 7The 2027 agenda
- 8Systems in depth
- AMethodology
- BData appendix
- CReferences and record
- ·Complete edition, for print
8.1Machines and process platforms
Additive machines span polymer and metal processes. Evidence is strongest where benchmark data and peer review exist, and weakest where claims rest on company announcements.
| Component | State | Evidence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Laser powder bed fusion | benchmark data and melt pool studies; monitoring has open gaps | 121516 | Reported |
| Polymer laser sintering | process energy estimated at 113.66 MJ/kg on one platform | 14 | Reported |
| Wire-arc deposition | a vendor announced a production order for submarine parts | 9 | Reported |
| Process control | closed-loop control shown in simulation only | 17 | Inferred |
Couplings
- INF ↔ FIN machines and revenue
- INF → GOV part acceptance and defence use
- MIN → INF powder
Evidence to bind in 2027
- production claims on a common basis
- yield and scrap by process
Related editions
- GLB Global Systems
- GS-15 Science and Engineering Frontier
- SR-04 Critical Minerals and Strategic Materials
- SR-03 Global Supply Chains, Trade and Chokepoints
- XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
- XT-03 Robotics and Autonomous Systems
8.2Energy, inert gas and process footprint
Metal machines run under inert gas or vacuum and use laser or electron beam energy. Energy and gas use per kilogram of part is not published on a common basis.
| Component | State | Evidence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Polymer sintering energy | one platform estimated; earlier studies in a similar range | 14 | Reported |
| Metal machine energy | not bound on a common basis | 14 | Expert input |
| Inert gas use | not published | 14 | Expert input |
| Cooling water | not published | 14 | Expert input |
Couplings
- ENE ↔ INF facility power
- WAT → INF cooling water
- INF → CLI process footprint
Evidence to bind in 2027
- metal machine energy and gas use
- cooling-water use
Related editions
- GLB Global Systems
- GS-15 Science and Engineering Frontier
- SR-04 Critical Minerals and Strategic Materials
- SR-03 Global Supply Chains, Trade and Chokepoints
- XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
- XT-03 Robotics and Autonomous Systems
8.3Feedstock, materials and supply chain
Production use depends on powder, wire and resin qualified for each process and alloy. Volumes are not published, and supplier commentary is the main evidence.
0volumes bound
powder supply and demand, NOT BOUND
| Component | State | Evidence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Metal powder | supplier capacity expansions reported; volumes not bound | 33 | Inferred |
| Casting and forging | strain on large castings named as a bottleneck for two submarine programmes | 7 | Reported |
| Critical minerals | export controls and price rises affect alloy inputs | 25 | Inferred |
| Machine supply | one maker in Chapter 11 and two with lower 2025 revenue | 345 | Reported |
Couplings
- MIN → INF powder and alloys
- TRD → INF export controls
- FIN → INF machine supply
Evidence to bind in 2027
- powder volumes
- qualified sources per alloy
Related editions
- GLB Global Systems
- GS-15 Science and Engineering Frontier
- SR-04 Critical Minerals and Strategic Materials
- SR-03 Global Supply Chains, Trade and Chokepoints
- XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
- XT-03 Robotics and Autonomous Systems
8.4Economy, investment and workforce
Revenue grew in 2025, but growth sat in services and materials while machine sales were weak. Workforce numbers are the thin part of the evidence.
| Component | State | Evidence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Market revenue | USD 24.2 billion in 2025, up 10.9%, in a trade summary | 2 | Reported |
| Machine makers | two listed makers reported lower 2025 revenue | 34 | Reported |
| Consolidation | Chapter 11 filing in July 2025 and a Markforged purchase in April 2025 | 5 | Reported |
| Workforce | a Navy need of 250,000 skilled workers is stated; no additive figure bound | 8 | Expert input |
Couplings
- FIN → INF machine supply
- FIN → DAT software and files
- HLT → INF workforce
Evidence to bind in 2027
- market figures from the reports
- workforce size and skills gaps
Related editions
- GLB Global Systems
- GS-15 Science and Engineering Frontier
- SR-04 Critical Minerals and Strategic Materials
- SR-03 Global Supply Chains, Trade and Chokepoints
- XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
- XT-03 Robotics and Autonomous Systems
8.5Security, standards and governance watch
Additive manufacturing is governed through standards committees, defence policy, health guidance and export controls. Build files cross borders more easily than machines.
| Component | State | Evidence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Standards | ASTM F42 and ISO/TC 261 work; design guides published, feedstock re-use in draft | 11 | Reported |
| Defence policy | DoD strategy of 2021 sets a common vision | 10 | Reported |
| Export controls | US control on metal machines from 2024; SIPRI sets out the case for machines, feedstock and files | 2122 | Reported |
| Occupational health | NIOSH names inhalation, skin contact, fire and explosion hazards | 1920 | Reported |
Couplings
- INF → DAT build file exposure
- GOV → TRD export controls
- INF → HLT powder hazards
Evidence to bind in 2027
- text of the 2024 rule
- exposure data across facilities
Related editions
- GLB Global Systems
- GS-15 Science and Engineering Frontier
- SR-04 Critical Minerals and Strategic Materials
- SR-03 Global Supply Chains, Trade and Chokepoints
- XT-12 Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology
- XT-03 Robotics and Autonomous Systems
Notes
Numbers are the edition’s reference numbers, so a note reads the same in every chapter. The full list, with every source and its licence, is in Annex C. Annex C, references
- 12NIST (ed.), AM-Bench (program page; 2025 benchmarks 8 metal and 1 polymer sets; 85 challenge submissions; conference November 2025; AM Bench 2028 in planning). National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 6GE Aerospace (ed.), Manufacturing milestone: 30,000 additive fuel nozzles (company article, 4 October 2018; Auburn, Alabama; one piece replacing about 20; about 25% lighter; more than 40 printers; vendor announcement, weak evidence). GE Aerospace, Evendale. Observation year 2018. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 15Chen, L. et al., In-situ process monitoring and adaptive quality enhancement in laser additive manufacturing: a critical review, arXiv:2404.13673, submitted 21 April 2024 (abstract page read; accepted to the Journal of Manufacturing Systems). arXiv, Ithaca. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 16Bhagat, K. and Rudraraju, S., A numerical investigation of dimensionless numbers characterising meltpool morphology of the laser powder bed fusion process, arXiv:2211.06312, submitted 11 November 2022 (abstract page read; simulation study). arXiv, Ithaca. Observation year 2022. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 14Baumers, M., Tuck, C. and Hague, R., Selective heat sintering versus laser sintering: comparison of deposition rate, process energy consumption and cost performance, Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium proceedings, University of Texas at Austin (full text read; the year is inferred from the cited 2015 sources). Observation year 2015. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 9AML3D Limited (ed.), AML3D signs initial production parts order for US Navy submarines (ASX release, 17 September 2026; about AU$0.5 million; three copper-nickel components; 16 systems deployed; company forecast of up to 100 systems and 1,600 components by 2030 attributed to Navy forecasts; vendor announcement, weak evidence). AML3D, Adelaide. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 17Hong, G., Cho, J. and Cho, H., Neuro-symbolic closed-loop control of laser powder bed fusion with an in-loop ontology, arXiv:2608.05773, submitted 6 August 2026 (abstract page read; preprint, simulation only, not peer reviewed). arXiv, Ithaca. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 8Maritime Industrial Base Program (ed.), Maritime Industrial Base Program highlights workforce mission at Virginia Tech (official release via the Defense Visual Information Distribution Service, event 18 September 2025; need for 250,000 skilled workers over a decade; Columbia-class and Virginia-class output goals for 2028). US Navy, Washington. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 7Jones, M. (NAVSUP Weapon Systems Support), Shattering bottlenecks: NAVSUP WSS partners with DLA and NAVSEA on submarine advanced manufacturing (official release via the Defense Visual Information Distribution Service, 30 June 2026; nearly 120 additive parts in development, 20 installed, more than 1,400 cumulative days of delay removed, lead times cut by up to 70% for some components; not independently audited). US Navy, Mechanicsburg. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 33UNVERIFIED, not opened: Continuum Powders (ed.), blog on powder supply bottlenecks for advanced manufacturing, October 2025, taken from a search summary; supplier commentary, weak evidence. Continuum Powders, Houston. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 25UNVERIFIED, not opened: IEA (ed.), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (July 2026; export controls and price moves for tungsten and other minerals, taken from search-result summaries that differ on some details; no figure used in copy). International Energy Agency, Paris. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 3Stratasys Ltd. (ed.), Stratasys releases fourth quarter and full year 2025 financial results (company release, 5 March 2026; revenue USD 551.1 million against USD 572.5 million in 2024; GAAP net loss USD 104.3 million). Stratasys, Rehovot and Eden Prairie. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 43D Systems Corporation (ed.), 3D Systems reports fourth quarter and full year 2025 financial results (company release, 9 March 2026; revenue USD 386.9 million, down 12%; Healthcare Solutions USD 179.6 million; Industrial Solutions USD 207.3 million). 3D Systems, Rock Hill. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 5Nano Dimension Ltd. (ed.), Annual report on Form 10-K for the year ended 31 December 2025 (first 100,000 characters read; Desktop Metal Chapter 11 filing on 28 July 2025; Markforged acquisition closed 25 April 2025; revenue tables not read). Nano Dimension, Waltham. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 2Voulpiotis, F. (3Dnatives), Wohlers Report 2026: growth continues, but caution defines the AM market (trade article, 17 February 2026; weak evidence: a trade summary of a commercial report; reports 2025 revenue USD 24.231 billion, up 10.9%, services up 15.5% with 48% share, machine sales up 3.6%, Asia-Pacific up 19.8%, Europe and the Americas up 9%). 3Dnatives, Paris. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 10OSD ManTech Program Office (ed.), DoD additive manufacturing strategy (article page of the Defense Systems Information Analysis Center dated 1 March 2021; strategy released January 2021 by the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering; the page lists no figures; the strategy document itself was not opened). Defense Systems Information Analysis Center, Belcamp. Observation year 2021. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 223DPrint.com (ed.), US Department of Commerce issues new export controls on metal additive manufacturing (trade article, 18 September 2024; interim final rule; ECCN 2B910; comments due 5 November 2024; author analysis on scope; secondary source, weak evidence). 3DPrint.com, Chicago. Observation year 2024. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 21Brockmann, K. and Bauer, S., 3D printing and missile technology controls, SIPRI Background Paper, November 2017 (summary page read; machines, feedstock and digital build files). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Stockholm. Observation year 2017. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 11NIST (ed.), Additive manufacturing standards (program page, updated 6 August 2026; ASTM F42, ISO/TC 261; ISO/ASTM 52911-1 and 52911-2 of 2019; ISO/ASTM 52922; work items WK72938, WK75184, WK78224, WK83109 in development). National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 19NIOSH (ed.), Additive manufacturing (manufacturing sector page, dated 16 July 2026; hazards named: inhalation of powders, skin contact, fire and explosion, mechanical and ergonomic injury). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Washington. Observation year 2026. Accessed 2026-11-03.back
- 20American Industrial Hygiene Association (ed.), NIOSH evaluates metals exposures at manufacturing facility (news item, 11 September 2025, on a NIOSH health hazard evaluation dated February 2025 with visits in March and May 2023; secondary summary, the evaluation itself was not opened). AIHA, Falls Church. Observation year 2025. Accessed 2026-11-03.back