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GCRI · 城市与建成环境

城市扩张与土地

Cities grow outward and upward, and the land they grow onto decides much of their future risk, cost and emissions. Expansion onto floodplains, steep slopes and coasts locks in exposure for generations, while sprawl raises the cost of services and travel. This page sets out how urban growth happens, how it is measured consistently across countries, and what evidence serves the planners and governments who shape it.

01登记

Urban growth and land on the record.

02问题

Urban growth and land: how the risk develops.

Settlement expansion and land use. The dossier below sets out how the risk develops, what is measured, where the data come from, how it is modelled and who decides.

机制

Expansion outpaces planning

Population and income growth drive demand for land faster than plans, infrastructure and titling can follow. Growth then happens first and services arrive later, if at all.

机制

Cheap land is often hazardous land

Floodplains, wetlands and unstable slopes are left vacant because they are risky, which makes them affordable. Settlement there converts hazard into risk.

机制

Density shapes cost and exposure

Compact growth reduces travel and service costs per person but concentrates exposure. Sprawl spreads exposure and raises infrastructure cost. Both need planning for hazards.

机制

Urban form lasts for centuries

Street patterns, plot sizes and trunk infrastructure, once built, are very hard to change. Decisions taken during rapid growth fix risk and efficiency for the long term.

03地理

印度的城市信号。

Population density, night lights and daytime surface heat over India, from NASA GIBS. Each layer carries its own date.

交互式地图需要JavaScript;图层列表和来源见下文。

图层 3

本页的城市信号

关于本图层
证据
估计值
来源
世界网格化人口 v4.11(NASA SEDAC(哥伦比亚大学 CIESIN))
提供方
NASA SEDAC(哥伦比亚大学 CIESIN)
许可协议
CC BY 4.0
年份版本
null;基于人口普查的估算,静态(2020)
处理结果
约 1 公里网格
不确定性
基于人口普查的 2020 年每平方公里人口估算,作为风险暴露背景展示;不是受任何危害影响的人数。
经由以下途径到达
gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov,仅在您允许实时地图后访问
关于本图层
证据
观测
来源
VIIRS Black Marble(VNP46A2)(NASA LAADS DAAC)
提供方
NASA LAADS DAAC
许可协议
NASA 开放数据
年份版本
每日;卫星辐射亮度,已校正月光和大气影响
构建时的最新内容
2026-10-12
处理结果
约 500 米网格
不确定性
所示日期的卫星夜间辐射亮度;灯光是用电和停电的替代指标,并非对供应或获得电力情况的测量。
经由以下途径到达
gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov,仅在您允许实时地图后访问
关于本图层
证据
观测(持续云层仍会造成缺口)
来源
VIIRS NOAA-20 Level 3,8 天(NASA LANCE)
提供方
NASA LANCE
许可协议
NASA 开放数据
年份版本
8 天;卫星 8 天合成;持续云层仍会造成缺口
构建时的最新内容
2026-09-14
处理结果
约 1 公里网格
不确定性
截至所示日期的 8 天内地表的卫星皮肤温度,是高温风险暴露指标;不是气温、热指数,也不是高温预警。
经由以下途径到达
gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov,仅在您允许实时地图后访问
关于本图层
证据
观测
来源
VIIRS NOAA-20 校正反射率(NASA LANCE)
提供方
NASA LANCE
许可协议
NASA 开放数据
年份版本
每日;卫星图像
构建时的最新内容
2026-10-14
处理结果
约 250 米网格
不确定性
卫星图像。卫星或模型栅格数据,按提供方发布的原样呈现。云层、条带缺口和反演误差会造成缺口和噪声;数值是指标,而非某地的测量值。
经由以下途径到达
gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov,仅在您允许实时地图后访问
关于本图层
证据
模型生成(GIBS 发布的最新年份)
来源
MODIS Terra 和 Aqua 土地覆盖(MCD12Q1)(NASA LP DAAC)
提供方
NASA LP DAAC
许可协议
NASA 开放数据
年份版本
每年;卫星分类;GIBS 发布的最新年份
构建时的最新内容
2024-01-01
处理结果
约 500 米网格
不确定性
所示年份的卫星土地覆盖类别,含农田;该分类存在已知误差,并非农场登记册。
经由以下途径到达
gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov,仅在您允许实时地图后访问
关于本图层
证据
观测(云层造成缺口)
来源
OMI Aura(NASA GES DISC)
提供方
NASA GES DISC
许可协议
NASA 开放数据
年份版本
每日;卫星反演;云层造成缺口
构建时的最新内容
2026-10-10
处理结果
约 2 公里网格
不确定性
所示日期低层大气二氧化氮的卫星柱含量,主要来自燃烧;不是地面浓度,也不是健康预警。
经由以下途径到达
gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov,仅在您允许实时地图后访问

最新可用

NASA GIBS / EOSDIS · ASTER GDEM (METI, NASA) · Blue Marble (NASA) · © OpenStreetMap贡献者 (ODbL) · Natural Earth

正在加载最新的NASA影像。

拖动以移动。按住 Ctrl 或 ⌘ 并滚动、双指缩放或使用按钮缩放;悬停可查看指针下的数值;重置可返回该区域。

城市信号,以印度为取景。NASA 发布的卫星和模型产品,各带自己的日期。它们是指标,而非对任何地点的评估。

数据:NASA GIBS · ASTER GDEM · Blue Marble · © OpenStreetMap 贡献者 · Natural Earth · NASA EONET · 美国地质调查局 · NASA JPL OPERA DIST-ALERT来源与许可

  • We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS). Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). NASA 开放数据
  • We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS). Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). NASA 开放数据
  • Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University. 2018. Gridded Population of the World, Version 4 (GPWv4): Population Density, Revision 11. NASA Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC). 采用 CC BY 4.0 许可。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘;显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均(经修改)。 doi:10.7927/H49C6VHW. CC BY 4.0
  • VIIRS Black Marble 夜间灯光,NASA 戈达德航天中心;由 NASA Level-1 与大气档案和分发系统(LAADS DAAC)分发;影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘;显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均(经修改)。 NASA 开放数据
  • VIIRS 近实时产品(洪水、地表温度、积雪覆盖、校正反射率),NASA LANCE;影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘;显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均(经修改)。 NASA 开放数据
  • MODIS 陆地产品(植被指数、总初级生产力、土地覆盖),NASA LP DAAC 和 LANCE;影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘;显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均(经修改)。 NASA 开放数据
  • OMI 二氧化氮(Aura)和 OMPS 气溶胶指数(Suomi NPP),NASA;由 NASA GES DISC 分发;影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘;显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均(经修改)。 NASA 开放数据
  • ASTER GDEM 是 METI 和 NASA 的产品(ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model V003,NASA LP DAAC);影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘;显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均(经修改)。引用格式:NASA/METI/AIST/Japan Spacesystems and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team (2019). ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model V003. doi:10.5067/ASTER/ASTGTM.003. NASA 开放数据
  • 使用 Natural Earth 制作。免费矢量和栅格地图数据,见 naturalearthdata.com。 公有领域
  • © OpenStreetMap 贡献者(ODbL),经由 NASA GIBS(海岸线、边界、道路和地名)。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘;显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均(经修改)。 ODbL
  • Blue Marble,NASA Earth Observatory;影像来自 NASA GIBS。颜色依据已发布的色标重绘;显示处的数值已按六边形网格平均(经修改)。 NASA 开放数据
  • 地球仪和平面地图上的背景信息:海岸线、边界、道路和地名来自 NASA GIBS 参考图层(OpenStreetMap 数据,ODbL,© OpenStreetMap contributors);Blue Marble 影像可作为可选底图;3D 地形和高程读数来自 ASTER GDEM 高程色彩指数(5 m 至 200 m 分级,为便于辨识而作了夸张处理)。边界按已发布的样式绘制,不代表对任何领土的立场。
  • 实时事件:NASA Earth Observatory Natural Event Tracker(EONET);事件仅供参考,并保留其原始来源链接。
  • 实时:NASA EONET。事件仅供参考,不是主管机构的预警。
  • 实时:美国地质调查局。事件仅供参考,不是主管机构的预警。
  • Observed (EO): NASA JPL OPERA DIST-ALERT (contains modified Copernicus Sentinel data 2026). We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS).
  • NASA GIBS: We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS).
  • 空气质量预报,5 天,PM2.5(CAMS,经由 Open-Meteo):包含经修改的 Copernicus 大气监测服务 2026 年信息。
  • 过去一年的每日气温和日照(NASA POWER):这些数据来自 NASA 兰利研究中心(LaRC)POWER 项目,该项目由 NASA 地球科学/应用科学计划资助。
  • 天气数据来自 Open-Meteo.com (https://open-meteo.com/), 依据 CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 授权。
  • 可选图层(图层列表中有 16 个来源:实时、预报、观测和背景)在开启时会在地图上和此处显示其提供方署名;预报是模型输出,派生指数是估计值。

图层与日期

  • 人口密度,2020 年:人口:哥伦比亚大学 CIESIN,世界网格化人口 v4.11(2018),NASA SEDAC, CC BY 4.0 · 静态
  • 夜间灯光,每日:VIIRS Black Marble(VNP46A2),NASA LAADS DAAC · 2026年10月12日
  • 地表温度,日间,8 天合成:VIIRS NOAA-20 3 级产品,8 天,NASA LANCE · 2026年9月14日
  • 真彩色:VIIRS NOAA-20 校正反射率,NASA LANCE · 2026年10月13日
  • 土地覆盖类型(IGBP),年度:MODIS Terra 和 Aqua 土地覆盖(MCD12Q1),NASA LP DAAC · 2024
  • 二氧化氮,低层大气柱:OMI Aura,NASA GES DISC · 2026年10月10日

04跨领域

Where cities grow decides future exposure in every domain.

05监测

带危害叠加的资产登记册。

团队跟踪该主题时会使用的界面:其指标、状态与决策。名称为示例,数值仅作示意。

带危害叠加的资产登记册

Urban growth and land · Riverside ward · Flood 1-in-100 overlay

13 public assets exposedGCRI · 城市与建成环境

危害叠加图层

资产登记册上的洪水情景

河流洪水范围暴露资产

暴露资产

H-01诊所0.3
S-07学校0.5
E-03变电站1.4
W-02泵站1.3

适应方案

抬高变电站 E-031中服务连续性设计
上游滞洪公园13高高温,休闲可行性
防洪诊所 H-011低卫生服务可及性已获资助
Asset register with hazard overlay: the screen’s structure, terms and states for Urban growth and land.示例名称和示意数值;是设计方案,并非记录或实时系统。
06指标

衡量什么,以及衡量得如何。

每个指标都注明其单位、频率、背后的来源类型以及数值将附带的证据标签。此处不显示数值:数值由计划依据其自身权限提供。

指标单位节奏来源类型标签
土地消耗率与人口增长率之比ratioper assessment periodSDG indicator 11.3.1 methods估算
建成区square kilometresper epochSatellite built-up area products观测
Urban population densitypeople per square kilometre of built-up areaper censusPopulation grids and built-up area估算
New built-up area in hazard zoneshectaresper epochBuilt-up area overlaid on hazard maps估算
Population by degree of urbanisation classpeopleper censusDegree of Urbanisation classification已发布统计
Land with approved plans before developmentpercent of new built-up area每次评估Planning records已报告
07模拟器

在相互依存的网络中的一次级联。

A 危害足迹 会摧毁每一层中位于同一位置的资产;随后,碎片化、层间依赖以及幸存部分的过载会使失效蔓延。3D 视图按深度分开各层。这是附有明示示意值的教学模型,不是预测。本页地图显示的是印度;模型本身不依附于某个地点。

控制措施

每个图层的资产
18
危害足迹
占面积的 8%
依赖其他图层的资产
60%
备用容量(容差)
30%

读数

受危害冲击的资产
13%
仍在运行的资产
44%
初始损害的放大
4.3 times
结算步数
2
数字、方法与来源
步骤交通运行(%)电力运行(%)电信运行(%)
0948383
1506739
2446128

方法

  1. 相互依存网络 Buldyrev 等(2010),Catastrophic cascade of failures in interdependent networks,Nature 464
  2. 过载级联 Motter and Lai (2002), Physical Review E 66
  3. 介数负载 Brandes (2001), Journal of Mathematical Sociology 25
  4. 多层网络 Kivela and others (2014), Journal of Complex Networks 2
  5. 基础设施相互依赖 Rinaldi, Peerenboom and Kelly (2001), IEEE Control Systems 21(6)
  6. 不确定性扇形图(参数蒙特卡罗) Spiegelhalter, Pearson and Short (2011), Visualising uncertainty about the future, Science 333
  7. 单因素敏感性(龙卷风图) Saltelli and others (2008), Global Sensitivity Analysis: The Primer, Wiley

数据

The model runs on the teaching values set by the controls. To calibrate it for a place, read it against these admitted layers and series, which this page’s map can draw:

  • 主要道路 Natural Earth
  • 铁路 Natural Earth
  • 海港 Natural Earth
  • 机场 Natural Earth
  • 城市范围 Natural Earth
  • 今晚的夜间灯光、停电(VIIRS 昼夜波段) NASA/NOAA VIIRS(Suomi NPP)· 登记 nasa.gibs.context-live-layers
  • 自然事件(NASA EONET) NASA EONET · 登记 nasa.eonet.events
级联在相互依存的网络中传播。示意性教学模型:它依据控件设定的数值运行,而非实测数据。方法:Interdependent networks (Buldyrev and others (2010), Catastrophic cascade of failures in interdependent networks, Nature 464);Overload cascades (Motter and Lai (2002), Physical Review E 66);Betweenness load (Brandes (2001), Journal of Mathematical Sociology 25)。
08来源

证据来自何处。

具名公共数据集与机构记录,各自注明许可类别。依协议获得的来源仅按其条款使用,绝不再次发布。

来源它提供什么许可类别
全球人类住区图层(欧盟委员会联合研究中心)Built-up area, population and settlement classes over several epochs开放,CC BY 4.0
UN DESA World Urbanization ProspectsUrban and city population estimates and projectionsOpen, CC BY 3.0 IGO
UN-Habitat Urban Indicators DatabaseSDG 11 indicator data for cities and countriesPublic, UN-Habitat terms (to check)
ESA WorldCoverGlobal land cover at ten-metre resolution开放,CC BY 4.0
Atlas of Urban Expansion (NYU Marron Institute)Expansion, density and layout for a global sample of citiesLicence to check
09孪生与级联模拟器

Model urban growth and land as a system. Run the cascade.

Assembled from the Nexus Standards area profile 城市与建成环境: the hazards it names, the 系统 and sectors that carry the loss, the controls that dampen it and the data that observe it. Choose the components, pick an initiating hazard and step through the cascade. The Map view places the run on an example geography with open data. Every coupling weight is a stated assumption you can change. A teaching model, not a forecast, an assessment or a certification. To model a place of your own choosing, open the full System Builder.

灾害

  • 冰塞洪水
  • 地震
  • 溃坝
  • Aftershock sequence (在下游引发)
  • Fault surface rupture (set off downstream)
  • Soil liquefaction (set off downstream)
  • Slope slide (set off downstream)
  • Rockfall (set off downstream)
  • Tsunami (set off downstream)
  • Building collapse (set off downstream)
  • 大范围停电(在下游引发)
  • Water supply failure (set off downstream)
  • 大规模流离失所(在下游引发)
  • Disaster and conflict debris (set off downstream)
  • 河流洪水(在下游引发)
  • Flash flood (set off downstream)
  • Turbidity current (set off downstream)
  • Seismically and structurally vulnerable stock (set off downstream)

控制措施

  • NS-0 章程与原则
  • NS-3 风险记录 UNI(语法、旧编码对照、分配机构)
  • NS-5 图表、地图和可视化标准(配合 UI/UX 套件)
  • NS-9 情境 UNI(部署、实例、计划实例)
  • NS-10 政策和条款(机器可读的义务:定义、约束、评估和执行)
  • NS-11 验证与监测(证据、证明、零信任符合性观测)
  • NRS-X5 城市与建成环境风险
  • NRS-H91 危害族:城市与建成存量压力(NHS-1 infra.urban)
  • NRS-H113 危害类别:金融体系脆弱性(NHS-1 soc.financial-system)
  • NRS-K7 领域包概况:城市(DOMAIN-007)
  • NRS-H31 危害类别:持久性和生物累积性物质(NHS-1 poll.persistent)
  • NRS-H34 危害类别:废物与残余物处置失效(NHS-1 poll.waste)

观测

  • Global Human Settlement Layer (listed for reference)
  • WorldPop gridded population (listed for reference)
  • Overture Maps buildings theme (listed for reference)
  • OpenStreetMap (listed for reference)
  • World Development Indicators (listed for reference)
  • Direct economic loss in relation to global GDP, damage to critical infrastructure and number of disruptions to basic services, attributed to disasters
  • Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national strategies
  • Proportion of urban population living in slums, informal settlements or inadequate housing
  • Percentage of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national strategies

示例地理范围

  • India: 65 hexagonal cells
  • 穿透云层的地表水,30 m(OPERA DSWx-S1 雷达),NASA GIBS
  • 过去半小时降雨率(IMERG),NASA GIBS
  • 今夜夜间灯光与停电(VIIRS 昼夜波段),NASA GIBS
  • 地表土壤湿度(SMAP),NASA GIBS
10决定

由谁决定,以及证据服务于什么。

Cities and Built Environment prepares evidence. The decisions below are taken by the authorities named, under their own rules, and never by the platform.

谁来决定问题本页面服务的证据
City and regional planning authoritiesWhere to direct growth and which land to protectExpansion and hazard overlays; plan coverage
National ministries of urban developmentHow to support planned expansion and trunk infrastructureGrowth projections; density profiles
National statistics officesHow to classify urban and rural areas consistentlyDegree of Urbanisation results

该主题产生的产出

  • Urban expansion analyses with hazard overlays
  • Degree of Urbanisation classifications for national statistics
  • Density and land-use efficiency profiles by city
  • Evidence notes for planning ahead of growth
11方法与证据

How urban growth and land is modelled, measured and tested.

模型、其假设、数据和不确定性,以科学家或工程师会核查的形式呈现。结构遵循已发表的方法。所取数值仅为示意,不是研究发现。

系统模型

The couplings between the systems in urban growth and land: signs of influence, a reinforcing and a balancing loop, and cross-links where stress jumps.

++−++城市关键基础设施社会社区经济R 增强B 平衡
Causal loop diagram from the page’s systems; signs show the direction of influence. Illustrative structure for a system dynamics or network model, not estimated couplings.
FAIR 指导原则 · GO FAIR 和 FORCE11W3C PROV · 万维网联盟关于一致处理不确定性的指南 · IPCCCEOS 分析就绪数据 · 地球观测卫星委员会
12核心问题

专家提出的问题。

  1. 01

    Where is growth happening?

    Which areas are being built on, how fast, at what density and with what access to services.

  2. 02

    What land is being converted?

    How much farmland, wetland, forest and floodplain is lost to development and what functions disappear with it.

  3. 03

    Who decides land use?

    How plans, markets, customary tenure and informal occupation interact.

  4. 04

    What does growth cost?

    How density and pattern affect the cost of roads, pipes, transport and emergency services.

13机制

What drives the risk.

Urban land often expands faster than urban population, so average densities fall and the fringe sprawls. Low-density growth raises the per-person cost of infrastructure and makes public transport harder to sustain. Very high density without services creates its own risks, from fire spread to overcrowding.

Land markets push growth towards cheaper land, which is often cheaper because it is hazardous or unserviced. Where planning is weak or slow, settlement precedes infrastructure, and retrofitting services later is costly and causes disruption.

Land conversion removes natural functions. Wetlands and floodplains store water; vegetation cools; soils absorb rainfall. Sealing them raises flood peaks and heat downstream and nearby.

14方法与局限

证据如何收集,以及止于何处。

方法或数据显示内容其局限
Satellite land-cover seriesBuilt-up expansion over timeClassification errors at the urban edge
Cadastre and planning recordsLegal land use and tenureIncomplete where tenure is informal or customary
Hazard overlaysGrowth in exposed zonesHazard maps can be outdated or coarse
Density and service modelsInfrastructure cost of growth patternsDepend on cost assumptions
15方法

如何研究,以及方法无法说明的内容。

  1. 地理信息系统城市风险暴露数据库 · 社区制图 · 用于规划的危害叠加在此应用
  2. 空间统计与地统计小区域估计 · 弱势群体的空间聚集 · 城市温度插值在此应用
  3. 地球与地球物理科学地震小区划 · 城市地面沉降监测 · 城市斜坡滑坡危害在此应用
  4. 社会与行为科学住房与权属调查 · 参与式规划研究 · 流离失所研究在此应用
16Where this page’s references

Where this page’s references lead.

阅读本页时所对照的机构和文件。状态和版本会变化;每个链接都指向发布机构。

17问题

问题与解答。

What is the Degree of Urbanisation?
A method endorsed by the UN Statistical Commission that classifies territory into cities, towns and semi-dense areas, and rural areas using population grids, so urbanisation can be compared across countries.
Why does urban sprawl matter for risk?
Sprawl spreads infrastructure over more land, raising costs, and often extends onto hazardous land. Compact growth can lower costs but concentrates exposure, so both need hazard-aware planning.
How is urban expansion measured?
By comparing built-up area from satellite imagery at different dates, and relating land consumption to population growth, as SDG indicator 11.3.1 does.
Is compact growth always safer?
Not always. Compact growth usually lowers service costs and travel, but density in hazardous areas or without services raises other risks. Context decides.
Can satellite data show informal growth?
It can show built-up change. Tenure, legality and service access need ground data and local knowledge.
Does the platform recommend where cities should grow?
No. It publishes evidence and methods. Land-use decisions belong to planning authorities.
报告贡献

从本页贡献证据。

报告 is the Consortium’s quarterly publication. What you know about this subject can become evidence, a case or a correction in the next edition, credited to you and published under CC BY 4.0 where it is your own work.

GCRI城市与建成环境全球部门风险与韧性证据简报
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