GCRI · Future of Work and Skills
Occupational safety
Work kills and injures millions each year through accidents, hazardous substances, heat and other conditions, and psychosocial risks affect mental health. New technologies and climate change add hazards while removing others. This page sets out how occupational hazards arise and are controlled, how injuries and illnesses are measured, and what evidence serves the labour inspectorates, employers and workers responsible.
Occupational safety in seven parts.
- 01The questionOccupational safety: how the risk develops
- 02Across the domainsOccupational safety meets hazards from every domain
- 03IndicatorsWhat is measured, and how well
- 04SourcesWhere the evidence comes from
- 05DecisionsWho decides, and what the evidence serves
- 06Core questionsWhat safety researchers ask
- 07MechanismsOld principles, new hazards
Occupational safety: how the risk develops.
Human factors and new work hazards. The dossier below sets out how the risk develops, what is measured, where the data come from, how it is modelled and who decides.
Heat is a growing hazard
Rising temperatures increase heat stress for outdoor and poorly ventilated indoor work, reducing productivity and causing illness and death.
Exposures cause disease over time
Dusts, chemicals and other exposures cause cancers and chronic diseases years later, which are under-recognised as work-related.
Psychosocial risks affect mental health
Long hours, job insecurity, harassment and opaque algorithmic management raise stress, burnout and mental ill-health among workers.
Prevention follows a hierarchy
Eliminating hazards and engineering controls protect better than relying on procedures and personal protective equipment.
People and exposure in Southeast Asia.
Population density, daytime surface heat and night lights over Southeast Asia, from NASA GIBS. Each layer carries its own date.
The interactive map needs JavaScript; the layer list and sources are below.
Layers 3
People and exposure, for this page
About this layer
- Evidence
- Estimated
- Source
- Gridded Population of the World v4.11 (NASA SEDAC (CIESIN, Columbia University))
- Provider
- NASA SEDAC (CIESIN, Columbia University)
- Licence
- CC BY 4.0
- Vintage
- null; Census-based estimate, static (2020)
- Resolution
- about 1 km grid
- Uncertainty
- Census-based estimate of people per square kilometre in 2020, shown as exposure context; not a count of people affected by any hazard.
- Reached through
- gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov, only after you allow the live map
About this layer
- Evidence
- Observed (persistent cloud still leaves gaps)
- Source
- VIIRS NOAA-20 Level 3, 8-day (NASA LANCE)
- Provider
- NASA LANCE
- Licence
- NASA open data
- Vintage
- 8-day; Satellite 8-day composite; persistent cloud still leaves gaps
- Newest at build
- 2026-09-14
- Resolution
- about 1 km grid
- Uncertainty
- Satellite skin temperature of the ground over the 8 days ending on the date shown, a heat exposure indicator; not air temperature, heat index or a heat warning.
- Reached through
- gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov, only after you allow the live map
About this layer
- Evidence
- Observed
- Source
- VIIRS Black Marble (VNP46A2) (NASA LAADS DAAC)
- Provider
- NASA LAADS DAAC
- Licence
- NASA open data
- Vintage
- daily; Satellite radiance, corrected for moonlight and atmosphere
- Newest at build
- 2026-10-12
- Resolution
- about 500 m grid
- Uncertainty
- Satellite night-time radiance for the date shown; lights are a proxy for electricity use and outages, not a measurement of supply or access.
- Reached through
- gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov, only after you allow the live map
About this layer
- Evidence
- Observed
- Source
- VIIRS NOAA-20 corrected reflectance (NASA LANCE)
- Provider
- NASA LANCE
- Licence
- NASA open data
- Vintage
- daily; Satellite image
- Newest at build
- 2026-10-14
- Resolution
- about 250 m grid
- Uncertainty
- Satellite image. Satellite or model raster as the provider publishes it. Clouds, swath gaps and retrieval error leave gaps and noise; values are indicators, not measurements at a place.
- Reached through
- gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov, only after you allow the live map
About this layer
- Evidence
- Modelled (latest year GIBS publishes)
- Source
- MODIS Terra and Aqua land cover (MCD12Q1) (NASA LP DAAC)
- Provider
- NASA LP DAAC
- Licence
- NASA open data
- Vintage
- yearly; Satellite classification; latest year GIBS publishes
- Newest at build
- 2024-01-01
- Resolution
- about 500 m grid
- Uncertainty
- Satellite land cover classes for the year shown, including croplands; a classification with known errors, not a farm register.
- Reached through
- gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov, only after you allow the live map
About this layer
- Evidence
- Observed (clouds leave gaps)
- Source
- OMI Aura (NASA GES DISC)
- Provider
- NASA GES DISC
- Licence
- NASA open data
- Vintage
- daily; Satellite retrieval; clouds leave gaps
- Newest at build
- 2026-10-10
- Resolution
- about 2 km grid
- Uncertainty
- Satellite column of nitrogen dioxide in the lower atmosphere on the day shown, mostly from combustion; not a ground-level concentration or a health warning.
- Reached through
- gibs.earthdata.nasa.gov, only after you allow the live map
Keyboard, with the map focused
Hold Ctrl or ⌘ and scroll to zoom
Latest available
NASA GIBS / EOSDIS · ASTER GDEM (METI, NASA) · Blue Marble (NASA) · © OpenStreetMap contributors (ODbL) · Natural Earth
Loading the latest NASA imagery.
Drag to move. Ctrl or ⌘ and scroll, pinch or the buttons to zoom; hover for the values under the pointer; reset returns to the region.
People and exposure, framed on Southeast Asia.Satellite and model products as NASA publishes them, each with its own date. They are indicators, not assessments of any place.
Data: NASA GIBS · ASTER GDEM · Blue Marble · © OpenStreetMap contributors · Natural Earth · NASA EONET · NASA JPL OPERA DIST-ALERTSources and licences
- We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS). Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). NASA open data
- We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS). Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). NASA open data
- Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University. 2018. Gridded Population of the World, Version 4 (GPWv4): Population Density, Revision 11. NASA Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC). Licensed under CC BY 4.0. Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). doi:10.7927/H49C6VHW. CC BY 4.0
- VIIRS near-real-time products (flood, land surface temperature, snow cover, corrected reflectance), NASA LANCE; imagery via NASA GIBS. Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). NASA open data
- VIIRS Black Marble night-time lights, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; distributed by the NASA Level-1 and Atmosphere Archive and Distribution System (LAADS DAAC); imagery via NASA GIBS. Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). NASA open data
- MODIS land products (vegetation indices, gross primary production, land cover), NASA LP DAAC and LANCE; imagery via NASA GIBS. Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). NASA open data
- OMI nitrogen dioxide (Aura) and OMPS aerosol index (Suomi NPP), NASA; distributed by the NASA GES DISC; imagery via NASA GIBS. Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). NASA open data
- ASTER GDEM is a product of METI and NASA (ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model V003, NASA LP DAAC); imagery via NASA GIBS. Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). Cite as: NASA/METI/AIST/Japan Spacesystems and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team (2019). ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model V003. doi:10.5067/ASTER/ASTGTM.003. NASA open data
- Made with Natural Earth. Free vector and raster map data @ naturalearthdata.com. Public domain
- © OpenStreetMap contributors (ODbL), via NASA GIBS (coastlines, boundaries, roads and place names). Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). ODbL
- Blue Marble, NASA Earth Observatory; imagery via NASA GIBS. Colours redrawn from the published colour map; values averaged into hexagonal cells where shown (modified). NASA open data
- Context on the globe and flat map: coastlines, boundaries, roads and place names from NASA GIBS reference layers (OpenStreetMap data, ODbL, © OpenStreetMap contributors); Blue Marble imagery as an optional base; 3D terrain and the elevation read-out from the ASTER GDEM elevation colour index (5 m to 200 m classes, exaggerated for legibility). Boundaries are drawn as published and imply no position on any territory.
- Live events: NASA Earth Observatory Natural Event Tracker (EONET); events are indicative and keep their original source links.
- Live: NASA EONET Events are indicative, not authority warnings.
- Observed (EO): NASA JPL OPERA DIST-ALERT (contains modified Copernicus Sentinel data 2026). We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS).
- NASA GIBS: We acknowledge the use of imagery provided by services from NASA’s Global Imagery Browse Services (GIBS), part of NASA’s Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS).
- Air quality forecast, 5 days, PM2.5 (CAMS via Open-Meteo): Contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information 2026.
- Weather data by Open-Meteo.com (https://open-meteo.com/), licensed under CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
- Optional layers (9 sources in the layer list: live, forecast, observed and context) print their provider credit on the map and here when switched on; forecasts are model output and derived indices are estimates.
Layers and dates
- Population density, 2020: Population: CIESIN, Columbia University, Gridded Population of the World v4.11 (2018), NASA SEDAC, CC BY 4.0 · static
- Land surface temperature, day, 8-day composite: VIIRS NOAA-20 Level 3, 8-day, NASA LANCE · 14 Sep 2026
- Night-time lights, daily: VIIRS Black Marble (VNP46A2), NASA LAADS DAAC · 12 Oct 2026
- True colour: VIIRS NOAA-20 corrected reflectance, NASA LANCE · 13 Oct 2026
- Land cover type (IGBP), yearly: MODIS Terra and Aqua land cover (MCD12Q1), NASA LP DAAC · 2024
- Nitrogen dioxide, lower atmosphere column: OMI Aura, NASA GES DISC · 10 Oct 2026
Occupational safety meets hazards from every domain.
Findings are designed for the Global Sector Risk and Resilience series. Since 2022 a safe and healthy working environment is an ILO fundamental principle, with Conventions 155 and 187; ISO 45001 sets management systems.
- Injury and illness data.
- Heat protection evaluations.
Skills and exposure console.
The screen a team would use to follow this subject: its measures, states and decisions. Names are examples and values are illustrative.
Skills and exposure console
Occupational safety · Labour market A · Year 2
Occupations by exposure
| Clerical support | 25,366 | 0.7 | Substitute | Data operations |
| Machine operators | 45,528 | 0.7 | Mixed | Robot maintenance |
| Care workers | 45,227 | 0.3 | Complement | Upskill |
| Analysts | 12,224 | 0.5 | Complement | Upskill |
Vacancies by skill
Reskilling pathway
- Assessskills profile
- Matchtarget role
- Train22 weeks
- Placeemployer
- Follow up6 months
What is measured, and how well.
Each indicator carries its unit, its cadence, the kind of source behind it and the evidence label a value would carry. No values are shown: a programme supplies them under its own authority.
| Indicator | Unit | Cadence | Source type | Label |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fatal occupational injuries | per hundred thousand workers | annual | Occupational injury statistics | Published statistics |
| Non-fatal occupational injuries | per hundred thousand workers | annual | Occupational injury statistics | Published statistics |
| Work-related deaths from disease | estimated deaths | per assessment | WHO and ILO joint estimates | ESTIMATED |
| Labour inspectors | per ten thousand employed | annual | ILOSTAT | Published statistics |
| Working hours lost to heat stress | percent of working hours | per assessment | Modelled estimates | MODELLED |
| Workers reporting work-related stress | percent | per survey | Working conditions surveys | REPORTED |
Model occupational safety as a system. Run the cascade.
Assembled from the Nexus Standards area profile Societal and information risk standards: the hazards it names, the systems and sectors that carry the loss, the controls that dampen it and the data that observe it. Choose the components, pick an initiating hazard and step through the cascade. The Map view places the run on an example geography with open data. Every coupling weight is a stated assumption you can change. A teaching model, not a forecast, an assessment or a certification. To model a place of your own choosing, open the full System Builder.
Hazards
- Civil unrest
- Supply-chain disruption (set off downstream)
- Currency crisis (set off downstream)
Systems and couplings
Controls
NS-0Constitution and principlesNS-9Contextual UNIs (deployments, instances, programme instances)NS-11Verification and monitoring (evidence, attestations, zero-trust conformance observation)NS-12Software, model and AI/ML artefacts (supply chain, model cards, dataset sheets)NRS-H117Hazard family: Social cohesion and atrocity risk (NHS-1 soc.cohesion)NRS-X7Information integrity and public trustNRS-D2Society, inclusion and human development riskNRS-H52Hazard family: Information-integrity attacks (NHS-1 cyber.integrity)NRS-H79Hazard family: Mental health crises (NHS-1 health.mental)NRS-H59Hazard family: Economic shocks and governance failure (NHS-1 soc.economic)
Observation
- WorldPop gridded population (listed for reference)
- World Bank Open Data and World Development Indicators API (listed for reference)
- Global SDG Indicators Database (listed for reference)
- Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population
- Proportion of people living below 50 per cent of median income
- Number of countries that adopt and implement guarantees for public access to information
Example geography
- The Horn of Africa: 253 hexagonal cells
- Night lights tonight, outages (VIIRS Day/Night Band), NASA GIBS
Where the evidence comes from.
Named public datasets and institutional records, each with its licence class. Sources by agreement are used only under their terms and never republished.
| Source | What it gives | Licence class |
|---|---|---|
| WHO and ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury | Deaths and disability from occupational risk factors | Public, WHO and ILO terms |
| ILOSTAT occupational safety and health statistics | Injuries and inspection | Open, CC BY 4.0 |
| EU-OSHA surveys and reports | Workplace risks and management in Europe | Public, EU terms |
| ILO report on heat stress and labour productivity | Estimates of working hours lost to heat | Public, ILO terms |
| National occupational injury and illness surveys | Injury and illness counts | Public records, licence per government |
How occupational safety is modelled, measured and tested.
The model, its assumptions, its data and its uncertainty, in the form a scientist or engineer would check. Structures follow published methods. The values drawn are illustrative, not findings.
System model
The couplings between the systems in occupational safety: signs of influence, a reinforcing and a balancing loop, and cross-links where stress jumps.
Who decides, and what the evidence serves.
Future of Work and Skills prepares evidence. The decisions below are taken by the authorities named, under their own rules, and never by the platform.
| Who decides | The question | Evidence this page serves |
|---|---|---|
| Labour inspectorates | Where to focus inspection and enforcement | Hazard profiles; capacity reviews |
| Employers and safety committees | Which controls to implement | Hazard and exposure evidence |
| Labour ministries | Which regulations to update, such as heat standards | Heat stress and disease evidence |
Outputs this topic produces
- Occupational hazard profiles by sector
- Heat stress exposure analyses for outdoor work
- Inspection capacity reviews
- Evidence notes on psychosocial risks
What safety researchers ask.
- What new physical hazards arise when people work alongside robots and automated systems?
- How does algorithmic management affect workload, stress and safety?
- How is climate change, especially heat, changing exposure in outdoor and indoor work?
- Are new forms of work, such as platform work, covered by safety systems at all?
Old principles, new hazards.
Human factors research shows that accidents usually arise from interactions between people, technology and organisation rather than individual error alone. Automation can remove dangerous tasks but create new ones: maintenance of automated equipment, unexpected robot motion, and monitoring tasks that leave people poorly placed to intervene.
Algorithmic management, where software assigns tasks, sets pace and monitors performance, can intensify work and increase musculoskeletal and psychosocial risks. Heat stress reduces safe working capacity and raises the risk of illness and accidents. Workers classified as self-employed may fall outside occupational safety systems entirely.
Evidence on work hazards.
- 01
Injury and illness surveillance
Records of workplace injuries and occupational diseases. Under-reporting is common, especially for psychosocial harm and in informal work.
- 02
Human factors analysis
Task analysis and incident investigation, using social and behavioural science and engineering methods. Findings depend on access to workplaces.
- 03
Exposure assessment
Measuring heat, noise, chemical and ergonomic exposure. Exposure varies within jobs and over time.
- 04
Evaluation of interventions
Assessing whether safety measures work, using econometrics. Rigorous evaluations are rare.
How it is studied, and what the methods cannot say.
- 01Social and behavioural scienceJob quality surveys · Social dialogue studies · Learner experience researchApplied here
- 02EconometricsDisplacement effects with linked data · Training programme evaluation · Workforce projectionsApplied here
- 03Robotics and automationRobot adoption and employment · Safety in human-robot work · Job redesign around robotsApplied here
Where this page’s references lead.
The bodies and documents this page is read against. Status and editions change; each link goes to the issuing body.
Questions and answers.
Is a safe and healthy working environment a fundamental right?
How does heat affect workers?
What is the hierarchy of controls?
Are collaborative robots safe?
What is algorithmic management?
How does heat affect work?
How are psychosocial risks assessed?
Does the platform inspect workplaces?
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